MANUAL    OF 
AGRICULTURE 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
LOS  ANGELES 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO 
DALLAS   •    SAN   FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON   •    BOMBAY  •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  LTD. 

TORONTO 


MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


BY 


LELAND   E.  vCALL,    M.S. 

ASSOCIATE    PROFESSOR   OF   SOILS   IN   THE   KANSAS 
STATE   AGRICULTURAL   COLLEGE 

AND 

E.    G.    SCHAFER,    M.S. 

INSTRUCTOR   IN   FARM   CROPS    IN   THE    KANSAS 
STATE    AGRICULTURAL    COLLEGE 


fforfc 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1912 

All  rights  reserved 


COPT*IOHT,  1912, 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  elect  retyped.     Published  October,  1912. 


ICortoooli 

J.  8.  Cashing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


c 


PREFACE 

As  population  increases,  society  is  demanding  greater 
efficiency  on  the  part  of  the  producers  —  the  men  and  women 
who  feed,  clothe,  and  shelter  society.  This  demand  can  be 
met  only  by  giving  the  producers  an  education  that  will 
function  in  greater  social  and  vocational  efficiency.  During 
the  last  decade  there  has  been  an  increasing  interest  in  agri- 
cultural education  for  the  secondary  schools. 

The  greatest  danger  to  agriculture  as  a  subject  for  a  course 
of  study  in  high  schools  has  resulted  from  attempting  to  make 
it  conform  to  the  organizing  ideas  of  that  kind  of  education 
that  has  for  its  controlling  motive  formal  discipline,  instead 
of  making  it  strictly  vocational.  The  result  is  that  agri- 
culture is  being  taught  as  a  textbook  subject  in  too  many  of 
the  high  schools.  This  is  due  largely,  no  doubt,  to  the  fact 
that  there  have  been  no  laboratory  and  field  guides  in  agri- 
culture adapted  to  high  schools.  The  controlling  motive 
in  the  organization  of  a  course  in  agriculture  should  be  vo- 
cational efficiency. 

The  authors  of  this  manual  are  experts  in  agriculture. 
Both  of  them  have  spent  much  time  in  studying  how  agri- 
culture can  be  adapted  to  the  needs  of  secondary  education. 
Their  training  and  experience  in  teaching  the  subject  have 
admirably  fitted  them  to  prepare  a  workable  manual  for 


365436 


Vi  PREFACE 

the  high  schools.  I  have  examined  carefully  every  lesson 
in  the  manual  and  have  seen  many  of  them  worked  out  in 
the  laboratory  and  field,  and  I  am  firmly  convinced  that  it 
meets  an  urgent  need  in  the  high  schools  to-day.  It  is 
scientific,  systematic,  and,  above  everything  else,  it  is  a 
workable  manual.  It  can  be  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the 
small  and  the  large  high  schools. 

In  writing  this  valuable  manual  the  authors  have  done 
credit  to  themselves  and  have  rendered  a  great  service  to  the 
high  schools. 

EDWIN  L.  HOLTON. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  RURAL  EDUCATION, 
KANSAS  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

IN  the  preparation  of  this  manual  the  authors  have  used 
freely  every  available  source  of  information.  They  are  in- 
debted to  Pres.  H.  J.  Waters,  Prof.  E.  L.  Holton,  Prof. 
Albert  Dickens,  Prof.  J.  W.  Searson,  Prof.  H.  L.  Kent,  Prof. 
G.  H.  Hine,  Mr.  C.  F.  Chase,  and  Mr.  W.  T;  McCampbell, 
of  Kansas  State  Agriculture  College,  for  suggestions  and 
assistance  in  the  preparation  of  this  manual. 

They  are  also  indebted  to  the  Animal  Husbandry  Depart- 
ment of  Purdue  University  for  illustrations  Nos.  15,  21,  22, 
and  23 ;  to  the  Animal  Husbandry  Department  of  Kansas 
State  Agricultural  College  for  illustrations  Nos.  18  and  20; 
to  the  Dairy  Department  of  Kansas  State  Agricultural  Col- 
lege for  illustration  No.  19 ;  and  to  Mr.  H.  Yuasa  for  assist- 
ance in  the  preparation  of  drawings. 

Material  taken  from  other  sources  has  been  properly 
credited  where  it  appears  in  the  manual. 


vu 


CONTENTS 

EXERCISES   FOR   SEPTEMBER 

EXERCISE  PAG* 

1.  DISTRIBUTION  or  SEEDS      .  .1 

2.  A  FIELD  LESSON  ON  THE  STUDY  OF  CORN        ....  5 

3.  A  STUDY  OF  SOIL  PARTICLES     .......  8 

4.  A  FIELD  LESSON  IN  SOILS          .......  14 

5.  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  VEGETATION  ON  SOIL  TEMPERATURE         .  19 

6.  A  SOIL  MOISTURE  STUDY  ........  23 

EXERCISES  FOR   OCTOBER 

7.  A  SOIL  MOISTURE  STUDY  (Continued}      .....  23 

8.  THE  RISE  OF  CAPILLARY  WATER  IN  SOILS       ....  30 

9.  THE  PERCOLATION  OF  WATER  IN  SOILS     .  .        .         .34 

10.  THE  WEIGHT  OF  SOIL  PER  CUBIC  FOOT 40 

11.  CAPACITY  OF  SOILS  TO  HOLD  MOISTURE    .....  44 

12.  SOIL  DRAINAGE  ...........  49 

13.  SOIL  MULCHES 53 

14.  THE  EFFECT  OF  UNDECAYED  ORGANIC  MATTER  ON  THE  RISE 

OF  SOIL  MOISTURE  .........  59 

15.  COLLECTING  MATERIAL  FOR  STARTING  PLANTS  (FIELD  LESSON).  63 

EXERCISES   FOR   NOVEMBER 

16.  THE  EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  WHEAT  PLANT  ...  66 

17.  THE  EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  RYE  PLANT       ...  71 

18.  THE  EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CORN  PLANT      ...  75 

19.  THE  CORN  KERNEL 79 

ix 


CONTEXTS 


RXKRCIHB  PAOt 

20.   THE  EAR  OK  CORN 88 

21-23.   CORN  JUDGINO  88 


EXERCISES  FOR  DECEMBER 

24.  A  STDDT  OF  SHELLED  CORN   .......  100 

26.  A  STUDY  OF  THE  WHEAT  HEAD 105 

26.  A  STUDY  OF  THE  RYE  HEAD  . Ill 

27-28.  A  STUDY  OF  WHEAT 116 

20.  A  STUDY  OF  RYE 121 

30.  A  STUDY  OF  THE  BARLEY  HEAD 124 

EXERCISES  FOR  JANUARY 

31.  A  STUDY  OF  THE  OAT  HEAD     .                 129 

32.  A  STUDY  OF  BARLEY 133 

33.  A  STUDY  OF  OATS 137 

34.  A  STUDY  OF  THE  SORGHUM  HEAD 141 

35.  A  STUDY  OF  SORGHUM  SEED     .......  144 

36.  A  STUDY  OF  COWPEAS  OR  SOY  BEANS       .....  148 

37.  THE  CAPACITY  OF  GRAIN  TO  ABSORB  MOISTURE       .         .         .161 

38.  FACTORS  AFFECTING  THE  GERMINATION  OF  SEEDS     .         .         .  154 

EXERCISES   FOR   FEBRUARY 

39.  A  GERMINATION  TEST  OF  CLOVER  OR  GRASS  SEED  .         .         .  159 

40.  A  STUDY  OF  GRASS  SEED 162 

41.  A  STUDY  OF  ALFALFA  SEED      .......  165 

42.  A  STUDY  OF  THE  PLOW 168 

43.  A  STUDY  OF  THE  GRAIN  GRADER  OR  FANNING  MILL       .         .  171 

44.  THE  CORN  GRADER     .........  175 

46.   THE  CORN  PLANTER  .         .         • 178 

46.   ACCURACY  OF  DROP  OF  THE  CORN  PLANTER  182 


CONTENTS  XI 
EXEECISES  FOR  MARCH 

EXERCISE  I'v.r 

47.  TREATMENT  OF  SEED  OATS  FOR  SMUT 185 

48.  THE  IRISH  POTATO .         .  189 

49-50.   PLANNING  THE  HOME  GARDEN      ......  193 

61.   PRUNING 197 

62-53.    BABCOCK  TEST 200 

54.   MIXING  SPRAY  MATERIAL  .         .                  205 

65.    GRAFTING 209 

EXERCISES   FOR   APRIL 

56-57.    GERMINATION  TEST  OF  SEED  CORN       .....  213 

58.  THE  EARLY  DEVELdpMENT  OF  THE  BARLEY  PLANT           .         .  218 

59.  THE  EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  OAT  PLANT        .         .         .  222 

60.  JUDGING  DRAFT  HORSES 226 

61.  JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES      ........  236 

62.  COMPARATIVE  JUDGING  OF  HORSES    ......  244 

63.  JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 249 

EXERCISES   FOR   MAY 

64.  JUDGING  BEEF  CATTLE       ........  257 

65.  COMPARATIVE  JUDGING  OF  CATTLE    .         .         .         .         .         .  263 

66.  JUDGING  FAT  HOGS 268 

67.  JUDGING  MUTTON  SHEEP    ........  274 

68-69.   JUDGING  A  FARM 280 

70.  PLANNING  THE  HOME  FARM        .......  287 

71.  THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  FARM  BUILDINGS  AND  PLANTINGS         .  291 

EXTRA  EXERCISES 

72.  THE  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  CORN     ....  295 

73.  THE  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  WHEAT          .         .         .  299 


Xll  CONTENTS 

BXKRCIBB  PAOK 

74.  THE  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  OATS     ....  808 

76.   THE  GKOOKAIMIICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  POTATOES      .         .        .  807 

76.  TREE  IDENTIFICATION         ........  311 

77.  STARTING  PLANTS  BY  CUTTINGS         ......  316 

78.  POTTINO  PLANTS 317 

79.  THE  DAIRY  HERD  RECORD 320 

80.  A  STUDY  OF  THE  Er.o 326 

81.  A  STUDY  OF  THE  RICE  HEAD   .......  330 

EXTRA  FOR  ARBOR   DAY 

82.  TREE  PLANTING 334 

APPENDIX 

SECTION    I.     EQUIPMENT 837 

SECTION  II.     SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS                                               ,  341 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

1.  A  SOIL  AUGER 15 

2.  A  TORSION  BALANCE 24 

3.  EQUIPMENT  SUITABLE  FOR  DEMONSTRATING  PERCOLATION 

OF  WATER  IN  SOILS 35 

4.  A  SOIL  MULCH  CYLINDER 54 

5.  YOUNG  WHEAT  PLANTS 67 

6.  A  CORN  KERNEL 79 

7.  EARS  OF  CORN  THAT  APPROACH  THE  IDEAL  TYPE    .        .  89 

8.  A  HEAD  OF  WHEAT  AND  ITS  PARTS 106 

9.  A  HEAD  OF  RYE 112 

10.  A  HEAD  OF  SIX-ROWED  BARLEY 125 

11.  A  HEAD  OF  OATS 130 

12.  ROOT  GRAFTING 210 

13.  CLEFT  GRAFTING 210 

14.  A  SEED  CORN  TESTER 214 

15.  A  DRAFT  HORSE,  SHOWING  LOCATION  OF  PARTS     .        .  228 

16.  REAR  VIEW  OF  HIND  LEGS  OF  HORSES    ....  230 

17.  SIDE  VIEW  OF  HIND  LEGS  OF  HORSES      ....  231 

18.  A  DRIVING  HORSE,  SHOWING  LOCATION  OF  PARTS  .        .  238 

19.  A  DAIRY  Cow,  SHOWING  LOCATION  OF  PARTS         .        .  251 

20.  A  BEEF  STEER,  SHOWING  LOCATION  OF  PARTS         .        .  259 

21.  A  FAT  HOG,  SHOWING  LOCATION  OF  PARTS      .        .        .  269 

xiii 


xiv  ILLUSTRATIONS 

nOUKE  PAOB 

22-23.    A  MUTTON  SHEEP,  SHOWING  LOCATION  OK  PARTS  .       276 

24.  MAP  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  SHOWING  THE  DISTRIBU- 

TION OP  CORN 298 

25.  MAP  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  SHOWING  THE  DISTRIBU- 

TION OF  WHEAT 302 

26.  MAP  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  SHOWING  THE  DISTRIBU- 

TION OF  OATS 306 

27.  MAP  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  SHOWING  THE  DISTRIBU- 

TION OF  POTATOES 310 

28.  SECTION  OF  AN  EGG 326 

29.  A  HEAD  OF  RICE  .  330 


A  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 
FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


LABORATORY  MANUAL   OF 
AGRICULTURE 

EXERCISE   1 
DISTRIBUTION    OF   SEEDS 

Object.  —  To  study  natural  methods  of  seed  distribution. 

Explanation.  —  It  is  an  advantage  for  plants  to  have 
their  seeds  distributed  as  widely  as  possible.  There  is  severe 
competition  among  plants  for  existence.  Only  a  few  of 
the  many  seeds  produced  from  year  to  year  find  favorable 
conditions  for  growth. 

There  are  four  important  common  methods  by  which  the 
seeds  of  plants  are  distributed :  distribution  by  wind ; 
distribution  by  birds;  forceful  expulsion  from  the  pod; 
distribution  by  animals  other  than  birds.  There  are  two 
general  kinds  of  seed  transported  by  the  wind.  Some  have 
wings,  as  the  ash  and  maple.  Others  have  feathery  pro- 
jections and  float  long  distances  in  the  air.  The  dandelion 
and  thistle  are  examples  of  these. 

Seeds  of  berries  and  small  fruits  are  often  carried  long 
distances  by  birds.  The  pulp  of  the  fruit  is  digested,  but 
the  seed  is  uninjured  and  may  be  dropped  along  fence  rows 
or  other  places  where  it  may  grow.  The  fleshy  part  of  the 
fruit  is  the  attraction  that  favors  distribution. 

B  1 


2  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Some  seeds  produced  in  pods  are  thrown  out  with  consider- 
able violence  when  the  pods  burst  open.  The  common  pea 
and  locust  are  examples  of  this  method  of  distribution. 

Many  seeds,  known  as  burrs,  bear  small  hooks  or  spines 
which  adhere  to  the  hair  of  animals  and  to  the  clothing  of 
man.  Such  seeds  are  sometimes  carried  long  distances 
before  they  are  removed.  The  sand  burr  and  cockle  burr 
afford  good  illustrations  of  this  method  of  distribution. 

Directions.  —  Make  a  journey  into  the  fields,  visiting,  if 
possible,  a  cultivated  field,  a  pasture,  a  hillside,  a  wood  lot,  a 
creek  bank,  and  a  roadside.  Collect  as  many  kinds  of  seeds 
as  can  be  found  growing  in  these  places.  Make  a  list  of 
the  names  of  the  seeds  that  have  been  gathered.  Record 
in  the  accompanying  outline  form  the  Hame,  the  locality 
where  collected,  and  the  means  that  the  plant  uses  for  dis- 
tributing its  seeds. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


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4  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


EXERCISE  2 
A   FIELD   LESSON  ON   THE   STUDY   OF   CORN 

Object.  —  To  observe  field  conditions  that  affect  yield 
of  corn. 

Explanation.  —  There  is  a  wide  range  in  the  yield  of  corn 
to  the  acre,  not  only  in  different  states  and  counties,  but  in 
fields  adjacent  to  each  other.  Close  observation  in  the  field 
shows  that  in  many  case  the  stand  of  corn  is  not  good; 
that  is,  there  are  many  vacant  places,  and  the  corn  is 
unevenly  distributed.  If  corn  is  planted  in  drills,  —  one 
kernel  to  the  place,  —  the  plants  should  be  from  twelve  to 
thirty  inches  apart  in  the  row.  If  checkrowed,  two  to  four 
kernels  of  corn  should  be  planted  to  the  hill,  depending 
upon  the  richness  of  the  soil,  rainfall,  and  other  climatic 
conditions,  and  the  variety  of  corn. 

The  ears  on  the  different  stalks  vary  in  size.  Some  are 
large  and  well-shaped,  others,  commonly  known  as  nubbins,  are 
smaller,  and  many  stalks  fail  to  produce  ears  at  all.  It  will 
be  easily  understood  that  the  number  of  plants  for  a  given 
area,  the  per  cent  of  stalks  producing  ears,  and  the  size  of 
the  ears  are  all  important  factors  influencing  the  acre  yield. 
In  this  exercise  one  stalk  for  each  twenty-one  inches  will  be 
considered  a  perfect  stand  when  drilled,  and  three  stalks  to 
the  hill  when  checkrowed. 

5 


6  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Equipment.  —  1.   A  hundred-foot  tape  line. 

2.  Spring  balance. 

3.  Half  bushel  basket. 

Directions.  —  Go  to  a  neighboring  field  or  patch  of  corn. 
Select  an  area  representing  the  average  of  the  field.  Meas- 
ure off  a  row  one  hundreth  of  an  acre  in  area.  (A  row  125 
feet  long  and  85  feet  wide  is  one  hundreth  part  of  an  acre.) 
Determine  the  number  of  stalks  that  should  be  in  the  row 
if  the  stand  were  perfect.  Count  the  number  of  stalks 
actually  in  the  row.  Count  the  number  of  stalks  producing 
ears.  Husk  and  weigh  the  corn  in  the  row.  Count  the  total 
number  of  ears.  Determine  the  average  weight  of  the  ears. 
Record  all  results  in  the  accompanying  outline  form.  Make 
the  calculations  necessary  to  fill  in  the  form. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 
Number  of  stalks  for  perfect  stand 


Actual  number  of  stalks  .  .  . 
Number  of  ear-producing  stalks 
Weight  of  corn  for  the  plot  .  . 
Total  number  of  ears  .  .  .  . 
Average  weight  of  ears  .  .  .  . 


From  the  above  determine  the  following : 
The  per  cent  of  a  perfect  stand  .    .    . 


The  per  cent  of  stalk-producing  ears 
The  plot  yield  in  bushels    .... 
The  acre  yield  in  bushels    .... 


The  possible  acre  yield  for  a  perfect  stand,  each  stalk  to  produce 
an  average-size  ear . 

The  possible  acre  yield  for  a  perfect  stand,  each  stalk  to  produce 
a  twelve-ounce  ear 

(In  reducing  pounds  to  bushels  count  seventy  pounds  equivalent 
to  one  bushel.) 


EXERCISE  3 
A  STUDY  OF  SOIL  PARTICLES 

Object.  —  To  study  the  size,  shape,  color,  and  character 
of  the  soil  particles  in  different  types  of  soil. 

Explanation.  —  The  earth  is  supposed  at  one  time  to  have 
been  solid  rock.  The  soil  that  now  covers  the  earth  was 
formed  by  the  breaking  up  of  this  rock  material.  Mixed 
with  the  rock  material  of  the  soil  is  a  small  amount  of  plant 
material  or  organic  matter. 

In  the  beginning  of  soil  formation  the  rocks  that  com- 
posed the  earth  were  undoubtedly  not  all  of  one  kind ;  some 
were  soft  and  others  were  hard.  The  soft  rocks  gave  way 
easily  to  the  forces  of  nature  and  were  soon  ground  into 
very  small  particles.  The  hard  rocks  have  resisted  this 
action,  consequently  they  have  been  broken  up  very  slowly, 
and  they  form  the  larger  particles  of  the  soil. 

Some  of  these  particles  are  so  large  that  they  hinder 
plowing  and  cultivating.  These  are  called  stones.  Other 
particles  smaller  than  these  are  called  gravel,  and  still 
smaller  particles  are  called  sand.  Thus  it  is  possible  to 
take  a  soil,  and,  by  examining  it  closely,  see  that  it  is  made 
up  of  a  countless  number  of  particles  of  many  different 
sizes.  These  particles  representing  different  sizes  have  been 
given  different  names,  as  follows: 

8 


A  STUDY  OF  SOIL  PARTICLES  9 

1.  Stones:  particles   of   soil  so  large  that  they  interfere 
with  tillage  operations. 

2.  Gravel:  particles  smaller  than  stones  but   larger  than 
one  twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

3.  Coarse  sand :  one  twenty-fifth  to  one  fiftieth  of  an  inch 
in  diameter. 

4.  Medium  sand:  one  fiftieth  to  one  hundredth  of  an  inch 
in  diameter. 

5.  Fine  sand:  one  hundredth  to  one  two  hundredth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter. 

6.  Very  fine  sand :  one  two-hundredth  to  one  five-hundredth 
of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

7.  Silt:  one  five-hundredth  to  one  five-thousandth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter. 

8.  Clay:    one  five-thousandth  to  one  two-hundred-fifty- 
thousandth  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

These  different-sized  particles  of  soil  are  spoken  of  as  soil 
components  or  physical  soil  constituents.  All  soils  do  not 
contain  all  of  these  components.  Some  of  the  most  fertile 
soils  do  not  contain  stones  or  gravel,  yet  all  of  the  fertile 
soils  contain  the  three  other  constituents,  sand,  silt,  and  clay. 

While  all  soils  contain  most  of  the  different  soil  constit- 
uents, very  few  soils  contain  these  constituents  in  exactly 
the  same  amount.  One  soil  will  have  the  sand  particles 
predominating,  another  soil  the  silt  particles,  and  a  third 
soil  the  clay  particles.  Thus  there  will  be  different  types 
of  farm  soils  produced  as  the  amounts  of  these  different 
soil  constituents  vary.  The  leading  types  of  farm  soils 
formed  by  varying  amounts  of  these  different  soil  constit- 
uents are  given  in  the  following  list : 


10  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

1.  Sandy  soils.  —  Made  up  chiefly  of  the  soil  constituents 
of  the  sand  size. 

2.  Clay  soils.  —  Soils  that  contain  over  one  third  clay 
and  a  large  amount  of  silt. 

3.  Loam  soils.  —  Soils  made  up  of  about  one  half  sand  of 
the  various  grades  and  the  other  half  silt  and  clay. 

The  soil  particles  vary  in  color  and  shape  as  well  as  in 
size.  The  color  of  the  soil  particles  has  but  little  influence 
on  the  color  of  the  soil.  The  color  is  due  to  organic  matter 
and  other  coloring  material  found  in  the  soil. 

Equipment.  —  1.    Microscope  magnifying  to  low  power. 

2.  Microscope  slides. 

3.  Four  large  test  tubes. 

4.  A  few  grams  of  the  following  soils :  gravel,  sand,  loam, 
clay. 

Directions.  —  Place  a  few  grains  of  the  gravel  on  a  piece 
of  white  paper  and  examine  with  reference  to  color. 

Estimate  the  per  cent  of  particles  that  are  white,  gray, 
brown,  black.  Record  your  results  in  the  accompanying 
outline  form. 

Study  the  shape  of  the  particles  and  determine  the  per 
cent  that  are  angular  and  rounded.  Record  your  obser- 
vations. 

Study  the  condition  of  the  particles.  Are  they  single  or 
compound  ?  Record  the  percentage  of  each. 

Divide  the  particles  into  groups  as  to  size.  Record  the 
per  cent  that  are  coarse,  medium,  and  fine. 

Place  a  few  grains  of  sand  on  a  microscope  slide  and  study 
under  the  microscope,  making  the  observations  required  in 
studying  gravel.  Study  in  the  same  way  the  sample  of 


A  STUDY  OF  SOIL  PARTICLES  ll 

loam  and  clay.     Record  all  observations  in  the  outline  form. 

Wet  a  small  amount  of  each  of  the  soils  and  compare 
them  as  to  stickiness ;  as  to  feel,  whether  gritty  or  smooth 
when  rubbed  between  the  fingers.  Record  your  observa- 
tions. 

Examine  the  different  soils  as  to  color.  Is  the  color  the 
same  as  the  color  of  the  largest  per  cent  of  the  soil  particles? 
Record  your  observations. 

Put  a  small  amount  of  each  kind  of  soil  in  a  test  tube, 
fill  the  tube  two  thirds  full  of  water,  and  shake  thoroughly. 
Set  aside  and  observe  the  rapidity  with  which  the  particles 
in  each  soil  settle.  Which  settles  the  most  rapidly?  the 
most  slowly?  Is  there  any  relation  between  the  size  of  the 
particles  and  the  rapidity  with  which  they  settle?  Record 
your  observations. 


12 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


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STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  13 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE  4 
A    FIELD    LESSON    IN    SOILS 

Object.  —  To  study  the  formation  of  soils  and  the  effect 
of  location  and  cultivation  upon  their  depth  and  value. 

Explanation.  —  A  soil  can  usually  be  separated  into  three 
distinct  layers :  first,  the  surface  soil ;  second,  the  subsur- 
face; and  third,  the  subsoil.  The  surface  soil  is  the  top 
soil  and  varies  in  depth  with  location  and  manner  of  forma- 
tion. It  is  distinguished  from  the  subsurface  soil  by  color, 
the  subsurface  soil  being  lighter  in  color.  The  subsoil  lies 
immediately  below  the  subsurface  soil  and  is  also  distin- 
guished from  the  subsurface  soil  by  having  a  lighter  color. 
The  subsurface  soil  is  intermediate  between  the  soil  and 
subsoil  in  both  location  and  color. 

The  different  layers  of  the  soil  differ  in  texture,  that  is,  in 
the  size  of  the  soil  particles.  Usually  the  surface  soil  has  a 
slightly  coarser  texture  than  the  subsurface  or  subsoil. 

Equipment.  —  1.  A  soil  auger. 

2.  A  piece  of  oilcloth  eighteen  inches  square. 

Directions.  —  Go  to  a  near-by  field  in  which  there  is  a  hill. 
Examine  the  soil  on  the  level  land  at  the  top  of  the  hill, 
on  a  steep  slope,  and  in  the  valley  at  the  bottom  of  the  slope. 
Make  an  examination  of  the  soil  in  each  place  as  follows : 

14 


A  FIELD  LESSON  IN  SOILS 


15 


Select  the  exact  spot  to  be  examined  and  clear  the  surface 
of  the  ground  of  grass  and  other  vegetation. 

Place  the  auger  over  the  spot  to  be  examined  and  give 
it  a  few  turns,  forcing  it  into  the  ground  four  or  five  inches. 
Remove  the  auger  with  the  soil.  In 
pulling  the  auger  a  slight  backward 
turn  will  enable  the  auger  to  be  pulled 
with  greater  ease,  and  prevent  the  cav- 
ing in  of  the  soil  around  the  auger 
hole. 

Remove  the  soil  from  the  auger  and 
place  it  in  a  pile  on  the  oilcloth  provided 
for  the  purpose. 

Repeat  this  operation,  forcing  the 
auger  down  a  few  inches  at  a  time  until 
the  subsurface  is  reached.  This  may  be 
determined  by  the  change  in  color. 

Determine  the  depth  of  the  surface 
soil  by  the  distance  the  auger  was  sunk 
into  the  ground  at  the  time  the  subsur- 
face soil  was  struck. 

Remove  a  sample  of  the  subsurface 
soil  in  the  same  way  that  the  surface 
soil  was  obtained  and  pile  it  on  the 
oilcloth  by  itself. 

Determine  the  depth  of  the  subsurface  soil. 

Remove  a  sample  of  the  subsoil  to  a  depth  of  three  feet. 
Place  the  subsoil  in  a  pile  on  the  oilcloth  beside  the  surface 
and  subsurface  soil. 

Examine  carefully  each  layer  of  soil  and  record  the  differ- 


FIG.  1.  —  A  soil  auger 
made  by  welding  a 
f-inch  gas  pipe  to  a 
li-inch  wood  auger. 


16  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTt  l;l 

ence  in  color,  texture,  stickiness,  and  amount  of  moisture 
and  organic  matter  present.  Record  your  observations  in 
the  accompanying  outline. 

Examine  the  soil  on  a  steep  slope  and  in  the  valley  in  the 
same  manner,  recording  depth  of  surface,  subsurface  and 
subsoil.  Also  record  difference  in  color,  texture,  stickiness, 
and  amount  of  moisture  and  organic  matter  present.  Record 
the  data  in  the  outline  form. 

Examine  the  surface  soil  of  an  old  cultivated  field  and  the 
surface  soil  of  the  adjoining  fence  row.  Make  careful  notes 
of  any  differences  observed. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  do  you  account  for  the  difference  in  color  between  the 
surface,  subsurface,  and  subsoil  at  the  top  of  the  hill?      How  do 
you  account  for  the  difference  in  stickiness  ?     For  the  difference  in 
amount  of  organic  matter  present  ? 

2.  Explain  the  cause  of  the  difference  in  depth  of  the  surface 
soil  on  the  hilltop,  the  hill  slope,  and  in  the  valley. 

3.  Explain  the  difference  in  color  as  found  in  the  three  places. 

4.  Which  do  you  think  would  grow  the  better  crop,  the  hillside 
or  the  bottom?     Why?     Can  you  state  from  your  knowledge  of 
crops  whether  this  is  generally  true  ? 

5.  What  differences  did  you  observe  between  the  soil  in  the  cul- 
tivated field  and  the  soil  in  the  fence  row  ?     How  do  you  account 
for  these  differences  ? 

6.  Was  the  soil  all  over  the  cultivated  field  originally  like  the  soil 
in  the  fence  row  ?     What  has  been  the  cause  of  the  change  brought 
about  by  cultivating  the  soil  ? 

7.  What  can  the  farmer  do  to  make  his  cultivated  land  as  mellow 
and  black  as  the  soil  in  the  fence  row  ? 

-f&.   What  are  the  uses  of  humus  or  organic  matter  in  the  soil  ? 

REFERENCES 

1.  Elements  of  Agriculture,  Warren,  pp.  95-96,  109-110. 

2.  First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility,  Vivian,  pp.  98-104. 


STUDENTS  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


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STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE  5 

THE   INFLUENCE   OF    VEGETATION   ON   SOIL   TEM- 
PERATURE 

Object.  —  To  determine  the  difference  in  temperature 
between  a  soil  covered  with  a  growing  crop  and  a  bare  soil 
exposed  to  the  direct  sunshine. 

Explanation.  —  The  temperature  of  the  soil  is  influenced 
by  its  color,  topography,  moisture  content,  and  the  vegeta- 
tion growing  on  the  soil.  The  amount  of  moisture  that  the 
soil  contains  is  the  principal  factor  affecting  the  temperature. 
With  soils  of  the  same  moisture  content  the  soil  upon  which 
there  is  a  growing  crop  will  be  cooler  than  the  one  without 
vegetation. 

Equipment-.  —  1.   A  soil  auger. 

2.  Eleven  chemical  thermometers. 

3.  Fifteen  feet  of  picture  wire. 

Directions.  —  Go  to  a  garden  or  field  where  there  is  culti- 
vated ground  and  also  ground  growing  a  crop  such  as  grass, 
alfalfa,  clover,  or  any  other  dense-growing  crop  that  shades 
the  ground  thoroughly. 

With  the  soil  auger  make  holes  in  both  the  cultivated  and 
the  cropped  ground  to  a  depth  of  3  inches,  6  inches,  1  foot, 
2  feet,  and  3  feet.  In  choosing  a  location  for  the  holes  care 
should  be  taken  to  place  them  where  the  ground  has  the  same 
general  direction  of  slope  and  the  same  angle  of  slope. 

19 


20  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Place  a  thermometer  in  each  hole.  The  thermometers 
should  be  lowered  into  the  holes  that  are  two  and  three  feet 
deep  by  means  of  picture  wire  attached  to  the  thermometer 
and  held  at  the  top  by  being  fastened  to  a  short  stick.  It  is 
advisable  to  wrap  with  paper  the  bulbs  of  the  thermometers 
used  in  taking  temperatures  at  a  depth  of  two  and  three  feet. 
The  paper  wrapped  around  the  bulb  serves  as  an  insulation, 
and  thus  prevents  sudden  changes  in  the  reading  of  the  ther- 
mometer. This  makes  it  possible  to  remove  the  thermometer 
from  the  hole  and  read  it  before  the  reading  changes.  If 
wet  paper  is  used  in  wrapping  the  bulbs,  it  should  be  allowed 
to  dry  thoroughly  before  the  thermometers  are  used. 

Take  the  temperature  of  the  air  four  feet  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  and  also  of  the  soil  in  each  field  at 
the  depths  indicated.  Make  temperature  readings  fifteen 
minutes  after  the  thermometers  are  placed,  and  each  succeed- 
ing fifteen  minutes  for  one  hour.  Record  the  readings  in  the 
accompanying  outline. 

Discuss  fully  the  results  of  the  exercise  and  account 
as  fully  as  possible  for  the  facts  observed. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  should  the  slope  of  the  fields  be  the  same  upon  which  the 
temperature  of  the  soil  is  taken  ? 

2.  What  effect  has  the  slope  of  the  land  upon  the  temperature  of 
the  soil  ? 

3.  Is  the  effect  of  the  slope  of  the  land  upon  the  temperature 
of  the  soil  ever  of  practical  importance  ?     When  ? 

4.  Why  should  not  thermometers  be  used  that  have  the  bulbs 
wrapped  in  wet  paper  ? 

5.  What  effect  has  growing  vegetation  upon  the  temperature 
of  the  soil? 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


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22  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISES  6  AND  7 
A    SOIL    MOISTURE    STUDY 

Object.  —  To  determine  the  amount  of  capillary  water  in 
a  cultivated  and  in  an  uncultivated  soil./rn^ 

Explanation.  —  Capillary  soil  water  is  the  water  in  the 
soil  that  may  be  used  by  plants.  It  is  held  in  the  soil  as  a 
thin  film  surrounding  the  soil  particles.  It  is  free  to  move 
by  the  force  of  capillarity  from  a  moist  to  a  drier  portion  of 
the  soil.  All  capillary  water  evaporates  from  the  soil  when 
it  is  thoroughly  dried  in  the  air. 

Equipment.  —  1 .    Soil  auger  3  feet  in  length. 

2.  Six  one-quart  mason  jars. 

3.  A  piece  of  oilcloth  18  inches  square. 

4.  Twelve  tin  pie  pans  6  inches  in  diameter. 

5.  Balances  weighing  to  half  a  gram. 

Directions.  —  Secure  a  sample  of  soil  from  a  garden  or 
field  where  the  ground  has  been  kept  cultivated  all  summer, 
and  another  sample  from  the  edge  of  the  garden  or  edge  of 
the  field  where  the  ground  has  not  been  cultivated,  and  where 
the  weeds  and  grass  have  been  allowed  to  grow. 

Clear  the  surface  soil  of  all  trash  and  vegetation,  and  where 
the  ground  has  been  cultivated,  brush  back  the  loosest  of  the 
surface  soil  so  that  it  will  not  roll  down  into  the  auger  hole 
while  removing  the  sample. 

23 


24 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


A  SOIL  MOISTURE  STUDY  25 

Force  the  auger  into  the  soil  by  turning  until  it  has  en- 
tered three  or  four  inches. 

Remove  the  auger  by  pulling  with  a  backward  twisting 
motion.  This  enables  the  auger  to  be  pulled  more  easily  and 
prevents  the  breaking  off  of  the  soil  around  the  sample  hole. 

When  the  auger  has  been  withdrawn,  remove  the  soil 
to  the  oilcloth  provided  for  this  purpose  and  transfer  it 
immediately  to  a  quart  mason  jar. 

Repeat  this  operation,  forcing  the  auger  into  the  ground 
three  or  four  inches  at  a  time,  until  the  sample  is  secured 
to  a  depth  of  twelve  inches. 

Cap  the  mason  jar  tightly  and  mark  with  a  label  that 
gives  the  treatment  of  the  soil,  its  character,  and  depth,  and 
the  date. 

Place  the  auger  in  the  hole  and  move  it  up  and  down   - 
several  times,  turning  it  slightly  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning 
the  walls  of  the  hole  so  that  the  samples  of  the  second  and 
third  feet  may  be  removed  without  coming  in  contact  with 
the  surface  soil. 

Remove  the  soil  loosened  in  enlarging  the  hole  by  sinking 
the  auger  just  to  the  depth  reached  in  taking  the  first  foot 
sample.  Discard  the  soil  removed  in  this  operation. 

Secure  a  sample  of  the  soil  of  the  second  foot  (12  to  24 
inches)  in  the  same  manner  as  described  for  the  first  foot. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  remove  any  surface  soil  that  may 
adhere  to  the  second  foot  sample  as  it  is  removed  from  the 
hole. 

After  the  second  foot  sample  has  been  placed  in  a  mason 
jar  and  properly  labeled,  secure  a  sample  of  the  third  foot 
(24  to  36  inches)  by  sinking  the  auger  an  additional  12 


26  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OP  AGRICULTURE 

inches  in  the  same  manner  as  that  described  in  taking  the 
first  and  the  second  foot  samples. 

Samples  from  at  least  three  holes  on  both  the  cultivated 
and  the  uncultivated  fields  should  be  secured.  The  soil  from 
each  of  the  three  holes  for  the  first  foot  of  the  cultivated 
field  should  be  placed  in  the  same  mason  jar.  A  second 
mason  jar  should  be  used  for  the  three  samples  from  the 
second  foot,  and  a  third  mason  jar  for  the  three  samples  from 
the  third  foot. 

On  the  uncultivated  field  three  samples  from  the  first 
foot  should  be  placed  in  one  mason  jar,  three  samples  from 
the  second  foot  in  another  jar,  and  the  three  samples  from 
the  third  foot  in  a  third  jar.  Thus  for  the  two  fields  six 
jars  will  be  required,  and  each  jar  will  contain  a  composite 
of  three  soil  samples. 

See  that  all  jars  are  properly  labeled,  and  that  the  tops 
are  screwed  on  tightly,  so  that  no  soil  moisture  can  escape 
by  evaporation. 

Take  the  samples  into  the  laboratory  and  set  them  aside 
for  the  next  laboratory  period. 

At  the  next  laboratory  period  determine  the  moisture  in 
duplicate  for  each  sample  of  soil  secured.  Before  the  jars 
are  opened  to  take  the  samples  for  the  moisture  determina- 
tions, the  contents  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  by  shaking. 
The  shaking  cannot  be  done  too  thoroughly. 

Number  a  drying  pan  to  correspond  with  the  sample 
of  soil  to  be  studied.  Weigh  this  pan  and  record  the  weight. 
Weigh  into  the  pan  200  grams  of  the  soil.  In  the  same 
manner  weigh  out  another  200-gram  sample  of  the  same 
soil  as  a  duplicate. 


A  SOIL  MOISTURE  STUDY  27 

Weigh  out  two  200-gram  lots  of  each  of  the  other  samples 
to  be  studied. 

Spread  the  soil  out  over  the  bottom  of  the  weighing  pan 
in  a  thin  layer  and  put  in  some  convenient  place  to  dry. 
After  four  days  drying  weigh  each  sample  and  record  weight. 
Repeat  the  drying  and  weighing  each  day  until  a  constant 
weight  is  obtained.  The  loss  in  weight  represents  the  capil- 
lary water  content  of  the  soil. 

Determine  the  percentage  of  capillary  moisture  computed 
on  the  weight  of  the  air-dry  soil.  Tabulate  the  results  in 
the  accompanying  outline. 

QUESTIONS 

1 .  Which  foot  contains  the  largest  amount  of  water  ? 

2.  Which  soil  contains  the  most  water,  the  cultivated  or  the 
uncultivated  ? 

3.  Discuss  the  reasons  for  the  difference  in  moisture  formerly  in 
the  two  soils. 

4.  From  the  moisture  determination,  figure  the  number  of  pounds 
of  water  there  would  be  in  the  acre  three  feet  of  soil  in  the  cultiva- 
ted and  uncultivated  field,  weight  of  soil  the  acre  foot  3,500,000 
pounds. 


28 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


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STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  29 

STUDENT'S   NOTES   AND    REPORT 


EXERCISE  8 
THE   RISE    OF   CAPILLARY   WATER   IN   SOILS 

Object.  —  To  compare  the  rate  of  the  rise  of  capillary 
water  in  soils  of  different  texture. 

Explanation.  —  Capillary  water  is  held  in  the  soil  as  a 
thin  film  surrounding  the  soil  particles.  It  moves  by  the 
force  of  capillarity  from  a  moist  to  a  drier  part  of  the  soil. 
Capillary  water  will  move  upward  through  the  soil  if  the 
soil  above  is  drier  than  the  soil  below.  The  height  to  which 
capillary  water  will  rise  in  the  soil  depends  upon  the  soil 
texture.  In  a  coarse-grained  soil  it  rises  very  rapidly,  but 
for  only  a  short  distance.  In  a  fine-grained  soil  it  rises 
slowly,  but  to  a  greater  height.  Capillary  water  rises  in  the 
soil  until  the  force  of  capillarity  is  overcome  by  the  force 
of  gravity. 

Equipment.  —  1.  Four  glass  tubes  3  feet  long  and  1 
inch  in  diameter. 

2.  A  tube  rack  for  holding  the  tubes. 

3.  A  pan  for  water  in  which  to  immerse  the  bottom  of 
the  tubes. 

4.  Cheesecloth. 

5.  String. 

6.  One-foot  rule. 

7.  Air-dry  soil :  gravel,  sand,  loam,  and  clay. 

30 


THE  RISE  OF  CAPILLARY  WATER  IN  SOILS  31 

Directions.  —  Tie  pieces  of  cheesecloth  over  one  end  of 
each  of  the  four  glass  tubes. 

Fill  each  tube  with  a  different  type  of  air-dry  soil.  In 
filling,  the  tubes  should  be  placed  upon  the  floor  with  the 
end  tied  with  cheesecloth  down.  The  soil  may  be  poured 
into  the  tube,  using  a  tin  funnel  or  a  paper  funnel  made 
from  a  sheet  of  paper. 

Place  the  tubes  in  the  tube  rack  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  ends  are  in  the  pan. 

When  all  the  tubes  are  in  position,  fill  the  pan  with  water 
to  a  depth  of  two  inches.  Take  the  exact  time  when  the 
water  is  added. 

Make  readings  of  the  height  to  which  the  water  has 
risen  in  the  soil  at  the  end  of  5  minutes,  15  minutes,  30 
minutes,  45  minutes,  1  hour,  2  hours,  1  day,  2  days,  3  days, 
4  days,  5  days,  and  6  days. 

Record  your  measurements  in  the  accompanying  outline 
form. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  In  which  soil  was  the  rise  of  water  the  most  rapid  ? 

2.  In  which  soil  was  the  rise  of  water  the  highest  ? 

3.  Is  the  fact  that  water  can  rise  from  a  wetter  to  a  drier  soil 
of  any  value  to  growing  crops  ?     When  ? 

4.  Which  of  the  soils  used  would  make  the  best  subsoil  ?     Why  ? 

5.  What  effect  would  a  layer  of  gravel  two  feet  in  thickness  in 
the  upper  subsoil  have  upon  growing  crops   in   a  period  of   dry 
weather  ?     Why  ? 


32 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


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STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  33 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE  9 
THE  PERCOLATION   OF  WATER  IN   SOILS 

Object.  —  To  compare  the  rate  of  percolation  of  water 
through  soils  of  different  texture. 

Explanation.  —  The  capacity  of  soils  to  absorb  water  that 
falls  as  rain  depends  upon  its  texture,  or  the  size  of  the  soil 
particles.  A  coarse-textured  soil  absorbs  moisture  rapidly, 
but  in  such  a  soil  the  water  percolates  through  it  quickly, 
and  thus  a  large  part  of  the  rain  that  is  absorbed  is  lost 
from  the  soil  as  percolating  water.  A  fine-grained  soil 
absorbs  rain  water  slowly,  but  holds  hi  the  soil  a  larger 
portion  of  the  water  that  is  absorbed.  An  ideal  soil  is  one 
that  is  coarse  enough  to  absorb  moisture  with  fair  rapidity, 
yet  fine  enough  to  retain  a  large  portion  of  the  moisture 
absorbed. 

The  condition  of  the  surface  of  the  soil  also  affects  the 
capacity  of  a  soil  to  absorb  moisture.  A  soil  that  is  hard 
and  compact  at  the  surface  will  absorb  moisture  much  more 
slowly  than  one  that  is  loose  and  open.  Thus,  plowing  the 
ground  when  it  is  compact  or  cultivating  it  when  it  is  crusted, 
favors  the  absorption  and  percolation  of  moisture  into  the  soil. 

Equipment.  —  1 .  Six  percolation  cylinders  with  rack  and 
supply  tank. 

2.   Six  beakers  400  or  500  c.c. 

34 


THE  PERCOLATION  OF   WATER  IN  SOILS 


35 


FIG.  3.  —  Equipment  suitable  for  demonstrating  percolation 
of  water  in  soils. 


36  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

3.  Graduated  cylinders  100  c.c. 

4.  Cheesecloth. 

5.  Shears. 

6.  Eighteen  inches  rubber  tubing  J-inch  diameter. 

7.  Three  soils:  sand,  loam,  and  clay. 

Directions.  —  Cut  a  disk  of  cheesecloth  just  large 
enough  to  cover  the  bottom  of  each  tube.  Place  the 
cheesecloth  in  the  bottom  of  each  tube.  Fill  with  soil 
the  tubes  provided  for  the  purpose  within  one  inch  of 
the  overflow  pipes.  Fill  two  tubes  with  sand,  two  with 
loam,  and  two  with  clay.  Place  a  half-inch  layer  of  gravel 
on  the  surface  of  each  to  prevent  displacement  of  the 
soil  by  running  water.  Place  the  tubes  in  the  rack  and 
connect  the  overflow  pipes  with  short  pieces  of  rubber 
tubing. 

Fill  the  supply  tank  with  water  and  invert  it  in  place 
over  the  soil  tubes.  The  supply  tank  will  maintain  a  water 
level  automatically. 

Note  the  time  at  which  water  was  applied. 

Place  beakers  under  each  tube  to  catch  the  drip  water. 
Note  the  time  at  which  the  water  starts  to  flow  from  each 
tube. 

When  the  flow  becomes  constant,  which  will  be  ten  or 
fifteen  minutes  after  the  flow  starts,  collect  the  water  which 
percolates  through  each  soil  in  fifteen  minutes.  Measure 
the  water  carefully  and  record  the  amount  in  the  accompany- 
ing outline  form. 

Repeat  the  process  of  percolation  and  measurements  twice. 
Record  the  amount  of  water  percolating  for  each  fifteen- 
minute  period  in  the  outline  form. 


THE  PERCOLATION  OF  WATER  IN  SOILS  37 

QUESTIONS 

1.  In  which  soil  was  percolation  the  most  rapid  ?     The  slowest  ? 

2.  Will  a  soil  that  is  coarse  and  sandy  absorb  rain  rapidly  ? 
Will  it  hold  the  water  well  ? 

3.  Which  soil  would  be  the  best  farm  soil  ?     Give  your  reasons. 

4.  Would  plant  roots,  earthworms,  molds,  and  other  animals 
help  water  to  percolate  in  loam  and  clay  soil  ? 

5.  Would  alfalfa  be  a  good  crop  to  plant  on  loam  or  clay  soil  to 
assist  percolation  ? 


365436 


38 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 
THE  PERCOLATION  OF  WATER  IN  SOILS 


TUBE 
NUMBER 

KIND  or 
SOIL 

TIME  PER- 
COLATION 
STARTS 

WATER  PERCOLATING  IN  15  MINUTES 

1st  Period 

2d  Period 

3d  Period 

Average 

1 

Sand 

1 

2 

Sand 

3 

Loam 

4 

Loam 

5 

Clay 

6 

Clay 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  39 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


EXERCISE   10 
THE    WEIGHT    OF    SOIL    PER    CUBIC    FOOT 

Object.  —  To  determine  the  weight  of  soil  per  cubic 
foot. 

Explanation.  —  The  weight  of  soil  depends  upon  the 
weight  of  the  material  of  which  the  soil  is  composed  and  the 
amount  of  open  space  or  pore  space  hi  the  soil.  If  a  cubic 
foot  of  soil  contained  no  pore  space  and  were  composed 
entirely  of  rock  particles,  it  would  weigh  a  little  more  than 
two  and  one  half  times  as  much  as  a  cubic  foot  of  water,  or 
about  165  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  A  cubic  foot  of  soil 
never  weighs  this  much.  A  soil  always  contains  some  pore 
space,  and  this  reduces  its  weight.  A  soil  also  contains  some 
organic  matter,  and  since  organic  matter  is  lighter  than  the 
rock  particles,  the  more  organic  matter  it  contains  the  less 
it  weighs.  Thus  the  weight  of  soil  per  cubic  foot  varies 
with  its  organic  matter  content  and  the  amount  of  pore  space 
in  the  soil. 

Equipment.  —  1.  Four  soil  tubes,  like  those  used  in 
Ex.  9. 

2.  Cheesecloth. 

3.  Shears. 

4.  Torsion  balances  weighing  to  half  a  gram. 

5.  Four  soils:  gravel,  sand,  loam,  and  clay. 

40 


THE  WEIGHT  OF  SOIL  PER  CUBIC  FOOT  41 

Directions.  —  Cut  disks  of  cheesecloth  to  cover  the  open- 
ings in  the  bottom  of  the  tubes.  Place  the  cheesecloth 
in  position  in  the  tubes.  Number  and  weigh  the  tubes. 
Record  weight  in  accompanying  outline  form. 

Fill  the  four  tubes  level  full  with  air-dried  gravel,  sand, 
loam,  and  clay,  respectively.  Compact  the  soils  in  each 
tube  by  holding  the  filled  tube  three  inches  above  a  book 
and  letting  the  tube  drop  bottom  downward  on  the  book. 
Compact  the  contents  of  each  tube  by  letting  it  drop  from  a 
height  of  three  inches  three  times. 

After  compacting,  again  fill  the  tubes  level  full  and  stroke 
with  a  straight  edge. 

Weigh  and  record  weight  of  tube  and  soil. 

Empty  the  tubes,  refill  with  the  same  soil,  and  weigh 
again  as  a  duplicate  determination. 

Record  duplicate  weighings. 

Measure  the  diameter  and  height  of  the  tubes  and  com- 
pute the  number  of  cubic  inches  of  soil  contained  in  each. 

Calculate  the  weight  of  the  soil  per  cubic  foot. 

Calculate  the  weight  of  an  acre  of  the  different  soils  to  a 
depth  of  one  foot. 

Tabulate  all  weighings  and  calculations  in  the  following 
outline  form. 


42 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


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STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  43 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE  11 
CAPACITY   OF    SOILS   TO    HOLD  MOISTURE 

Object.  —  To  determine  the  capacity  of  different  types  of 
soils  to  hold  moisture  and  to  study  the  effect  of  organic 
matter  on  the  moisture-holding  capacity  of  the  soil. 

Explanation.  —  Soil  water  is  held  in  the  soil  partly  as 
a  thin  film  surrounding  the  soil  particles  and  partly  as  an 
accumulation  of  water  in  the  pore  spaces  of  the  soil.  If 
a  soil  is  saturated  with  water,  all  its  pore  space  will  be  filled, 
and  the  capacity  of  a  soil  to  absorb  water  will  be  determined 
by  the  amount  of  its  total  pore  space.  If  the  water  is  allowed 
to  drain  away  from  the  saturated  soil,  the  free  water  will 
escape.  After  the  free  water  has  percolated  away,  the  water 
which  remains  will  represent  the  amount  of  film  water  that 
the  soil  will  hold. 

Different  types  of  soils  differ  in  the  amount  of  pore  space 
they  contain  and  in  the  amount  of  surface  exposed  around 
the  soil  particles,  and  therefore  in  the  amount  of  free  and 
film  water  that  they  can  hold.  Other  things  being  equal, 
the  soil  having  the  smallest-sized  particles  will  have  the 
greatest  amount  of  pore  space  and  will  hold  the  most  water. 

Organic  matter  affects  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the 
soil.  Those  soils  of  the  same  texture  supplied  with  the  most 
organic  matter  will  absorb  and  hold  the  most  water.  Or- 

44 


CAPACITY  OF  SOILS   TO  HOLD  MOISTURE  45 

ganic  matter  holds  the  soil  particles  apart,  gives  a  greater 
amount  of  pore  space,  and  thus  increases  the  total  water- 
absorbing  power  of  the  soil.  Well-decayed  organic  matter 
is  spongy  in  nature.  It  has  great  ability  to  absorb  and  hold 
water  itself,  just  as  a  sponge  holds  water.  Therefore,  it  greatly 
increases  the  water-retaining  power  of  the  soil. 

Equipment.  —  1.  Four  soil  tubes,  the  same  as  used  in 
Ex.8. 

2.  A  four-gallon  crock. 

3.  Balances  weighing  to  half  a  gram. 

4.  Cheesecloth. 

5.  Pair  of  shears. 

6.  Wash  pan. 

7.  Four  pieces  of  glass  three  inches  square. 

8.  Well-decayed  barnyard  manure. 

9.  Three  soils:  sand,  loam,  and  clay. 

Directions.  —  Cut  disks  of  cheesecloth  to  cover  the  open- 
ings in  the  bottom  of  the  tubes.  Place  the  cheesecloth 
in  position  in  the  tubes. 

Number  and  weigh  the  four  tubes;  record  weight  in  ac- 
companying outline  form. 

Fill  the  tubes  to  within  one  inch  of  the  top  with  the  fol- 
lowing soils : 

No.  1.   Sand  No.  3.   Clay 

No.  2.   Loam  No.  4.   Sand  and  manure. 

Prepare  the  sand  and  manure  for  tube  No.  4  by  mixing 
ten  parts  of  sand  with  one  part  of  manure.  Proportions 
determined  by  weight.  Weigh  and  record  weight  of  all 
tubes  filled  with  soil. 

Place  the  tubes  hi  the  four-gallon  crock  provided  for  the 


46  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

purpose.  Fill  the  crock  with  water  until  the  water  stands 
about  level  with  the  top  of  the  soil  in  the  tubes. 

Take  the  time  that  the  water  was  added.  Note  the  time 
that  the  first  moisture  appears  on  the  top  of  the  soil  in  each 
tube.  Record  time  required  for  water  to  appear  in  each 
case. 

Allow  the  tubes  to  remain  in  the  water  until  the  soil  is 
thoroughly  saturated.  This  will  be  about  ten  minutes 
after  water  appears  on  the  surface  of  the  last  soil. 

Remove  the  tubes  one  at  a  time,  wipe  off  the  excess  water 
with  a  towel,  and  quickly  weigh.  Record  weights. 

Place  the  tubes  on  a  draining  shelf  and  cover  with  glass 
plates  to  prevent  evaporation  of  water  at  the  surface  of  the 
soil. 

Weigh  after  standing  15  minutes,  30  minutes,  1  day, 
2  days,  3  days,  4  days,  5  days,  6  days.  Wipe  excess  water 
from  bottom  of  the  tube  each  time  before  weighing.  Record 
each  weight  in  the  outline  form. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  a  saturated  soil  ? 

2.  What  effect  has  organic  matter  upon  the  water-holding  power 
of  the  soil  ? 

3.  Calculate  the  per  cent  of  water  held  by  each  soil  the  sixth  day. 

4.  Calculate  the  number  of  pounds  of  water  retained  per  cubic 
foot  of  dry  soil. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


47 


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48  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


EXERCISE   12 
SOIL   DRAINAGE 

Object.  —  To  study  the  effect  of  standing  water  in  the 
soil  upon  the  growth  of  plants. 

Explanation.  —  A  plant,  to  develop  properly,  must  be 
grown  in  a  soil  supplied  with  both  air  and  water  in  proper 
proportions.  When  the  soil  contains  too  much  water,  all 
the  spaces  between  the  soil  particles  are  filled,  and  there  is 
no  room  for  air.  A  plant  growing  in  a  soil  in  this  condition 
will  not  thrive  because  its  roots  will  not  receive  sufficient 
air.  The  water  must  be  removed  from  a  saturated  soil  so 
that  air  can  enter  before  crops  will  grow  well.  This  can 
best  be  accomplished  by  means  of  tile  drainage. 

Equipment.  —  1.    Two  chemical  thermometers. 

2.  Two  one-gallon  flower  pots. 

3.  A  pound  of  paraffin. 

4.  A  two-quart  saucepan  in  which  to  melt  paraffin. 

5.  A  one-foot  rule. 

6.  Graduated  cylinder,  100  c.c. 

7.  A  few  grains  of  corn. 

8.  Loam  soil,  and  a  small  amount  of  gravel. 
Directions.  —  Melt  the  paraffin  and  dip  one  flower  pot 

so   that   it    is    covered    with    a   thin   coating    of    paraffin. 
Allow  the  paraffin  to  cool   and    solidify  slightly.      While 
E  49 


50  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

the  paraffin  is  still  soft,  plug  up  the  hole  in  the  bottom  of 
the  pot. 

Place  an  inch  of  gravel  in  the  bottom  of  the  second  pot 
to  insure  good  drainage  and  see  that  the  hole  in  the  bottom 
of  the  pot  remains  open. 

Fill  both  pots  to  within  one  inch  of  the  top  with  loam 
soil. 

Add  water  slowly  by  means  of  the  graduated  measure  to 
the  soil  in  the  paraffined  pot  until  it  has  absorbed  all  that  it 
will.  This  will  require  twenty  or  thirty  minutes.  Record 
the  amount  of  water  added.  Add  the  same  amount  of  water 
to  the  unparaffined  pot,  allowing  any  water  that  will  to 
escape  at  the  bottom  of  the  pot  through  the  drain.  Place 
the  two  pots  in  the  window  of  the  laboratory  where  they  will 
receive  sunlight. 

Let  the  pots  stand  two  days.  At  the  end  of  two  days 
plant  three  grains  of  corn  in  each  pot  at  a  depth  of  two 
inches. 

Place  a  thermometer  in  each  pot  with  the  bulb  two  inches 
below  the  surface  soil  and  record  the  temperature  of  the  soil 
at  the  tune  the  corn  was  planted.  Take  the  temperature 
every  two  days  for  thirty  days.  Record  data  in  the  accom- 
panying outline  form. 

Add  enough  water  every  three  days  to  the  pot  with  good 
drainage  to  keep  the  corn  growing  well.  Add  the  same 
amount  of  water  to  the  poorly  drained  paraffined  pot. 

Measure  the  height  of  growth  of  plants  when  temperature 
of  the  soil  is  taken. 

At  the  end  of  thirty  days  remove  the  plants  from  both 
pots  and  examine  the  root  growth. 


SOIL  DRAINAGE 


51 


QUESTIONS 

1.  In  which  pot  did  the  plants  make  the  best  growth  ? 

2.  How  do  you  account  for  the  difference  in  growth  ? 

3.  Was  there  any  difference  in  the  color  of  the  plants  in  the  two 
pots  ?     How  do  you  account  for  this  difference  ? 

4.  What  was  the  difference  in  temperature  of  the  soil  in  the  two 
pots  ?     How  do  you  account  for  this  difference  ? 

5.  Would  this  difference  in  temperature  have  any  effect  on  the 
growth  of  the  plants  ? 

6.  In  which  pot  did  the  roots  go  the  deeper  ?     Why  ? 

7.  Can  a  farmer  expect  the  best  growth  of  corn  on  a  field  poorly 
drained  ? 

8.  How  can  the  farmer  improve  the  drainage  of  a  poorly  drained 
field? 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 

TABLE  FOR  RECORDING  TEMPERATURE  OF   SOIL  AND  GROWTH  OF 
PLANTS  IN  POOR  AND  WELL  DRAINED  SOIL 


SOIL 

OBSERVATION 

TEMPERATURE  OF  SOIL  IN  DEGREES  F. 
GROWTH  OF  PLANTS  IN  INCHES 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

•M 

Well 
Drained 

Temperature 

Plant  growth 

Poorly 
Drained 

Temperature 

Plant  growth 

52  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


EXERCISE   13 
SOIL    MULCHES 

Object.  —  To  determine  the  amount  of  water  that  evap- 
orates from  the  soil  when  cultivated  at  different  depths 
and  when  covered  with  different  material. 

Explanation.  —  A  soil  mulch  is  any  covering  placed  upon 
the  soil  that  prevents  the  evaporation  of  moisture.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  soil  mulches,  natural  soil  mulches  and  arti- 
ficial soil  mulches.  An  artificial  soil  mulch  is  any  material 
such  as  straw,  sawdust,  or  stones  placed  upon  the  soil  to  pre- 
vent evaporation,  while  a  natural  soil  mulch  is  the  loosened 
surface  of  the  soil  itself  produced  by  cultivation.  Natural 
soil  mulches  are  the  most  practical  because  they  can  usually 
be  produced  at  the  smallest  cost.  Any  implement  of  culti- 
vation that  leaves  the  surface  soil  loose  and  mellow  will 
produce  a  good  natural  soil  mulch. 

Equipment.  —  1.    Four  evaporation  cylinders. 

2.  A  wash  pan. 

3.  A  long-bladed  knife  or  spatula. 

4.  Scales  weighing  to  one  quarter  of  a  pound  and  having 
a  capacity  of  fifty  pounds. 

5.  A  small  amount  of  cut  straw. 

Directions.  —  Fill  the  four  evaporation  cylinders  to  within 
one  inch  of  the  top  with  fine  air-dried  loam  soil. 

Fill  the  water-supply  tubes  on  the  cylinders  with  water. 

53 


Fia.  4.  —  A  cylinder  suitable  for  demonstrating  the  effect  of  mulches  on 
evaporation  of  water  from  soils.  Made  of  galvanized  iron.  Dimensions 
of  cylinder  eighteen  inches  long  and  four  in  diameter.  The  bottom  of 
the  cylinder  is  incased  in  a  water  jacket.  The  water  in  the  jacket  enters 
the  soil  by  means  of  perforations  near  the  bottom  of  cylinder. 

54 


SOIL  MULCHES  55 

Let  the  cylinders  stand  until  the  soil  appears  damp  at  the 
surface  in  all  the  cylinders.  This  may  require  several 
hours,  and  it  may  be  necessary  to  replenish  the  water  in  the 
supply  tubes  during  this  period  of  time. 

After  capillary  water  appears  at  the  top  of  the  soil  on  all 
the  cylinders  they  should  be  treated  as  follows : 1 

No.  1.  No  treatment. 

No.  2.  Cultivated  one  inch  deep. 

No.  3.   Cultivated  three  inches  deep. 

No.  4.   Covered  with  two  inches  of  cut  straw. 

Cylinders  2  and  3  should  be  cultivated  by  removing  the 
soil  to  the  required  depth  into  a  wash  pan  by  means  of  a 
long-bladed  knife.  Thoroughly  mix  the  soil  and  return  it  in 
a  loose  condition  to  the  cylinder.  Just  sufficient  soil  should 
be  returned  to  the  cylinder  to  bring  it  to  within  one  inch  of 
the  surface.  Discard  any  surplus  soil. 

Cylinder  4,  on  which  the  cut  straw  is  used  as  a  mulch, 
should  be  prepared  by  removing  two  inches  of  the  soil  and 
replacing  the  soil  with  two  inches  of  finely  cut  straw. 

When  the  mulches  are  in  place,  fill  the  supply  tubes  to  the 
same  level  with  water.  Cork  the  tubes  to  prevent  evapora- 
tion. Weigh  the  cylinders  and  record  the  weight  in  the 
accompanying  outline  form. 

Repeat  the  weighings  each  day  for  six  days. 

Determine  the  surface  area  of  the  cylinders  and  compute 
the  number  of  tons  of  water  evaporated  per  acre  in  each  case 
during  a  period  of  one  week. 

Tabulate  your  results  in  the  accompanying  outline  form. 

1  The  cylinders  may  be  filled  at  one  laboratory  period  and  the 
mulches  placed  in  the  cylinders  at  the  next  period. 


56  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Which  was  the  best  mulch  ? 

2.  Which  depth  of  cultivation  saved  the  most  moisture? 

3.  Was  there  any  difference  in  the  amount  of  water  evaporated 
from  day  to  day  ?     Can  you  account  for  this  difference  ? 

4.  Does  the  farmer  ever  use  soil  mulches  ?     When  ? 

5.  How  often  should  the  farmer  cultivate  his  fields  to  keep  a 
good  soil  mulch  ? 


STUDENT'S  NOTES   AND  REPORT 


57 


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58  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


EXERCISE   14 


Object.  —  To  study  the  effect  of  plowing  under  undecayed 
organic  matter  on  the  rise  of  soil  moisture. 

Explanation  —  Moisture  moves  from  a  wetter  to  a  drier 
portion  of  the  soil  by  means  of  capillarity.  In  order  that 
capillary  movement  of  moisture  may  take  place  the  soil 
particles  must  be  in  close  contact.  If  the  soil  particles  are 
not  in  close  contact,  capillary  movement  of  moisture  cannot 
take  place.  When  large  amounts  of  barnyard  manure  or 
rank  growths  of  green  plant  material  are  plowed  under  in  the 
soil,  the  soil  particles  are  held  apart  by  this  layer  of  material 
and  the  capillary  rise  of  water  cannot  take  place  in  the 
surface  soil.  If  a  crop  is  planted  on  a  soil  in  this  condition, 
it  will  be  unable  to  secure  moisture  from  the  lower  soil  in  its 
early  stages  of  growth,  and  if  the  season  is  dry,  will  suffer 
greatly  for  water.  It  is,  therefore,  undesirable  to  plow  under 
barnyard  manure,  straw,  or  green  manure  just  before  plant- 
ing a  crop.  If  manure  is  to  be  used  just  before  planting,  it 
should  be  applied  lightly  as  a  top  dressing. 

Equipment.  —  1.  Three  glass  tubes,  rack,  and  pan,  like 
those  used  in  Ex.  8. 

2.   Cheesecloth. 

59 


60  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

3.  Shears. 

4.  String. 

5.  Loam  soil. 

6.  A  small  amount  of  green  grass. 

7.  A  small  amount  of  manure. 

Directions.  —  Tie  a  piece  of  cheesecloth  over  the  end  of 
each  of  the  glass  tubes. 

Fill  the  tubes  with  soil  to  a  height  of  twelve  inches.  In 
filling,  the  tubes  may  be  placed  on  the  desk  or  floor  with 
the  end  tied  with  cheesecloth  down. 

Place  the  tubes  in  the  tube  rack  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  lower  ends  are  in  the  pan  which  is  to  be  used  later  as 
a  container  for  water. 

Number  the  tubes.     Treat  the  tubes  as  follows : 

No.  1.  Place  two  inches  of  green  grass  cut  into  small 
pieces  in  the  tube  over  the  top  of  the  soil  and  fill  the  tube  to 
the  top  with  loam  soil. 

No.  2.  Place  two  inches  of  finely  pulverized  barnyard 
manure  in  the  tube  over  the  top  of  the  soil  and  fill  the  tube 
to  the  top  with  loam  soil. 

No.  3.     Fill  with  loam  soil  as  a  check. 

When  all  the  tubes  are  filled  and  in  position,  fill  the  pan 
with  water  to  a  depth  of  two  inches.  Take  the  exact  time 
of  adding  the  water. 

Make  readings  of  the  height  to  which  the  water  has  risen 
in  each  tube  at  the  end  of  15  minutes,  30  minutes,  1  hour, 
1  day,  2  days,  3  days,  4  days,  5  days,  and  6  days. 

Record  your  measurements  in  the  accompanying  outline 
form.  Describe  fully  the  lesson  that  you  have  learned  from 
conducting  this  exercise. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


61 


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62  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OP  AGRICLUTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


EXERCISE   15 
COLLECTING    MATERIAL   FOR    STARTING    PLANTS 

Object.  —  To  collect  and  store  material  to  be  used  for 
grafting  and  making  cuttings. 

Explanation.  —  Twigs  and  branches  for  grafting  and  cut- 
tings must  be  collected  when  they  are  in  a  dormant  stage. 
This  can  usually  be  best  accomplished  in  the  fall  soon  after 
the  leaves  have  fallen.  They  should  be  stored  in  a  cellar 
where  they  will  not  freeze  and  where  they  will  remain  moist. 

Equipment.  —  1.    A  sharp  knife. 

2.   A  barrel  or  box  for  storing  cuttings. 

Directions.  —  Go  into  an  orchard  where  the  variety  of  the 
trees  and  quality  of  the  apples  are  known.  Collect  twigs 
only  from  trees  that  are  thrifty  and  that  produce  a  good 
quality  of  apples.  Use  wood  of  the  previous  season's  growth. 
Collect  two  hundred  twigs,  ranging  in  length  from  four  to  ten 
inches.  Tie  them  in  bundles  of  twenty-five  each.  Label 
each  bundle  with  the  name  of  the  variety. 

Go  into  a  vineyard  and  select  twigs  from  grapevines.  Col- 
lect fifty  twigs  from  grapevines  that  produce  a  good  quality 
of  grapes.  These  twigs  should  be  from  five  to  ten  inches 
long.  Label  them  with  the  name  of  the  variety  and  tie 
them  in  bundles  of  twenty-five  each. 

Go  into  a  wood  lot  and  select  twigs  from  willow  or  cotton- 

63 


64  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTl  Hi: 

wood   trees.     Collect  one   hundred   twigs   of   the   previous 
-<  .icon's  growth.     Tie  them  in  bundles  of  twenty-five  each. 

Partly  fill  the  barrel  or  box  with  sawdust,  sand,  or  moss. 
Carefully  place  the  bundles  of  twigs  in  the  barrel  or  box  and 
cover  completely,  filling  in  with  the  sawdust,  sand,  or  moss. 
The  material  should  be  moistened  and  not  allowed  to  dry 
out.  The  apple  twigs  collected  in  this  exercise  will  be  used 
in  Ex.  55  for  grafting,  and  the  other  material  will  be  used  in 
Ex.  77  for  making  cuttings. 


STUDENTS' NOTES  AND  REPORT  65 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE   16 
THE  EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  WHEAT  PLANT 

Object.  —  To  study  the  germination  of  the  wheat  kernel 
and  the  early  growth  and  development  of  the  plant. 

Explanation.  —  The  kernel  of  wheat  incloses  a  living 
plant  in  the  dormant  stage.  The  germ  is  the  living  part  of 
the  kernel  from  which  the  shoot  and  roots  develop.  When 
the  kernel  or  seed  is  placed  in  the  soil  under  proper  condi- 
tions of  moisture  and  temperature,  it  absorbs  moisture  and 
begins  to  grow.  The  food  for  the  young  plantlet  is  furnished 
by  the  endosperm. 

When  the  kernel  of  wheat  germinates,  it  sends  out  three 
temporary  roots.  As  the  plant  continues  to  grow  it  sends 
out  permanent  roots.  The  depth  at  which  the  permanent 
roots  occur  depends  upon  the  condition  of  the  soil.  If  the 
wheat  is  seeded  at  a  medium  depth,  the  temporary  and  per- 
manent root  systems  will  develop  at  about  the  same  place. 
If  the  wheat  is  seeded  very  deeply,  the  permanent  roots  will 
develop  above  the  temporary  roots  and  near  the  surface  of 
the  soil. 

Equipment.  —  1.  Plants  of  wheat  one,  two,  three,  and  four 
weeks  old,  seeded  one  inch  deep. 

2.  Plants  of  wheat  two  and  four  weeks  old,  seeded  three 
inches  deep. 


THE  EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  WHEAT  PLANT    67 


Directions.  —  Dig  up  a  number  of  small  wheat  plants  for 
this  study.  Be  careful  not  to  break  the  roots  in  removing 
the  plants  from  the 
soil.  Remove  the 
dirt  which  clings  to 
the  roots,  by  wash- 
ing. Make  a  study 
of  plants  one  week 
old,  two  weeks  old, 
three  weeks  old,  and 
four  weeks  old, 
seeded  one  inch 
deep.  Also  make  a 
study  of  plants  two 
weeks  old  and  four 
weeks  old,  seeded 
three  inches  deep. 
(In  determining  age 
of  plant  count  time 
from  date  of  seed- 
ing.) 

Make  drawings  of 
the  plants  at  the 
different  stages  of 


B 


FIG.  5. — Young  wheat  plants.  A,  two  daya 
after  planting ;  B,  five  days  after  planting ; 
C,  three  plants  the  same  age  planted  at  dif- 
ferent depths. 


growth  and   at   the 

different    depths    of 

seeding      indicated. 

Show   in   the    drawings   the    three  temporary   roots  which 

develop  first,  and  in  other  drawings  show  the  permanent 

roots  which  develop  somewhat  later  and  are  sent  out  in 


08  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

whorls  from  the  nodes.  Show  how  tho  distance  between  the 
temporary  roots  and  the  whorl  of  permanent  roots  depends 
upon  the  depth  of  planting.  Show  how  the  older  plants 
begin  to  tiller,  by  sending  up  new  stems.  The  drawings 
should  include  the  root  system,  stems,  and  leaves  and  their 
arrangement. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  69 

STUDENT'S   NOTES   AND    REPORT 


70  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE   17 


Object.  —  To  study  the  germination  of  the  rye  kernel 
and  the  early  growth  and  development  of  the  rye  plant. 

Explanation.  —  The  kernel  of  rye  incloses  a  living  plant 
in  the  dormant  stage.  The  germ  is  the  living  part  of  the 
kernel  from  which  the  shoot  and  roots  develop.  When  the 
kernel  or  seed  is  placed  in  the  soil  under  proper  conditions 
of  moisture  and  temperature,  it  absorbs  moisture  and  begins 
to  grow.  The  food  for  the  young  plantlet  is  furnished  by 
the  endosperm. 

When  the  kernel  of  rye  germinates,  it  sends  out  four  tem- 
porary roots.  As  the  plant  continues  to  grow  it  sends  out 
permanent  roots.  The  depth  at  which  the  permanent 
roots  occur  depends  upon  the  condition  of  the  soil.  If  the 
rye  is  seeded  at  a  medium  depth,  the  temporary  and  per- 
manent root  system  will  develop  at  about  the  same  place. 
If  the  rye  is  seeded  very  deeply,  the  permanent  roots  will 
develop  above  the  temporary  roots  and  near  the  surface  of 
the  soil. 

Equipment.  —  1.  Plants  of  rye  one,  two,  three,  and  four 
weeks  old,  seeded  one  inch  deep. 

2.  Plants  of  rye  two  and  four  weeks  old,  seeded  three 
inches  deep. 

71 


72  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Directions.  —  Dig  up  a  number  of  small  rye  plants  for 
this  study.  Be  careful  not  to  break  the  roots  in  removing 
the  plants  from  the  soil.  Remove  the  dirt  which  clings 
to  the  roots,  by  washing.  Make  a  study  of  plants  one  week 
old,  two  weeks  old,  three  weeks  old,  and  four  weeks  old, 
seeded  one  inch  deep.  Also  make  a  study  of  plants  two 
weeks  old  and  four  weeks  old,  seeded  three  inches  deep.  (In 
determining  age  of  plant  count  time  from  date  of  seeding.) 

Make  drawings  of  the  plants  at  the  different  stages  of 
growth  and  at  the  different  depths  of  seeding  indicated. 
Show  in  the  drawings  the  four  temporary  roots  which  develop 
first,  and  in  other  drawings  show  the  permanent  roots 
which  develop  somewhat  later  and  are  sent  out  in  whorls 
from  the  nodes.  Show  how  the  distance  between  the  tem- 
porary roots  and  the  whorl  of  permanent  roots  'depends 
upon  the  depth  of  planting.  Show  how  the  older  plants 
begin  to  tiller,  by  sending  up  new  stems.  The  drawings 
should  include  the  root  system,  stems,  and  leaves  and  their 
arrangement. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES   AND   REPORT  73 

STUDENT'S   NOTES   AND    REPORT 


74  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE  18 
THE  EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CORN  PLANT 

Object.  —  To  study  the  germination  of  the  corn  kernel 
and  the  early  growth  and  development  of  the  corn 
plant. 

Explanation.  —  The  kernel  of  corn  incloses  a  living  plant 
in  the  dormant  stage.  The  germ  is  the  living  part  of  the 
kernel  from  which  the  shoot  and  roots  develop.  When 
the  kernel  or  seed  is  placed  in  the  soil  under  proper  con- 
ditions of  moisture  and  temperature,  it  absorbs  moisture  and 
begins  to  grow.  The  food  for  the  young  plantlet  is  fur- 
nished by  the  endosperm  until  the  root  system  becomes 
established. 

When  the  kernel  of  corn  germinates,  it  sends  out  four 
temporary  roots.  The  largest  of  the  four  roots  grows 
directly  out  from  the  tip  end  of  the  germ.  The  other  three 
roots  grow  out  where  the  main  root  and  shoot  are  attached 
to  the  kernel.  Just  above  these  three  roots  a  little  swelling 
appears,  and  from  this  point  the  permanent  root  system 
develops.  The  permanent  root  system  develops  about  the 
same  distance  from  the  surface  of  the  soil  regardless  of  the 
depth  of  planting. 

Equipment.  —  1.  Corn  plants  one,  two,  three,  and  four 
weeks  old,  seeded  one  inch  deep. 

75 


76  LABORATORY   MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

2.  Corn  plants  two  and  four  weeks  old,  seeded  three  inches 
deep. 

Directions.  —  Dig  up  a  number  of  small  corn  plants  for 
this  study.  Be  careful  not  to  break  the  roots  in  removing 
the  plant  from  the  soil.  Remove  the  dirt  which  clings  to 
the  roots,  by  washing.  Make  a  study  of  plants  seeded  one 
inch  deep,  one  week  old,  two  weeks  old,  three  weeks  old, 
and  four  weeks  old.  Also  plants  seeded  three  inches  deep 
two  weeks  old  and  four  weeks  old.  (In  determining  age 
of  plant  count  time  from  date  of  seeding.) 

Make  drawings  of  the  plants  at  different  stages  of  growth 
and  at  the  different  depths  of  seeding  indicated.  Show  in 
the  first  drawing  the  four  temporary  roots  which  develop 
first,  and  in  drawings  of  older  plants  the  permanent  root 
system  which  develops  later.  Show  how  the  distance  be- 
tween the  temporary  roots  and  the  permanent  root  system 
depends  upon  the  depth  of  planting. 

The  drawings  should  include  the  root  system,  stalk,  and 
leaves  and  their  arrangement. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES   AND  REPORT  77 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


78  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE   19 


Object.  —  To  make  a  study  of  the  physical  parts  of  corn 
kernels.  To  show  the  differences  in  texture  in  the  different 
parts  of  the  same  kernel.  To  show  the  location  of  color 
in  yellow,  white,  and  red  kernels  of  dent 
corn. 

Explanation.  —  There  are  six  distinct 
types  of  corn:  dent,  flint,  soft,  sweet, 
pop,  and  pod.  Dent  corn  is  the  type 
most  generally  grown. 

There  are  four  distinct  parts  of  the 
corn  kernel.  They  are  the  seed  coat, 
aleurone  layer,  endosperm,  and  embryo. 
The  seed  coat  or  hull  is  a  thin  outer  layer 
covering  the  entire  kernel.  It  serves  as 
a  protection  for  other  parts  of  the  kernel 
and  constitutes  about  7  per  cent  of  the 
kernel.  The  aleurone  layer  lies  just 
under  the  seed  coat  and  serves  as  a  second  covering  for 
the  kernel.  It  constitutes  about  10  per  cent  of  the  corn 
kernel.  The  endosperm  comprises  the  greatest  part  of  the 
corn  kernel.  It  is  composed  largely  of  starch  and  is  a 
source  of  food  supply  for  the  young  plant  just  after 

79 


FIG.  6. — A  corn  ker- 
nel, a,  crown  starch ; 
6,  hull ;  c,  horny 
starch ;  d,  shoot  of 
embryo ;  e,  germ ; 
/,  root  of  embryo ; 
g,  tip  cup. 


80  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

germination.  The  endosperm  is  composed  of  two  distinct 
classes  of  material':  the  hard,  corneous,  and  the  white,  starchy 
endosperm.  About  73  per  cent  of  the  entire  kernel  is  endo- 
sperm. The  embryo,  also  called  the  germ,  is  the  living  part 
of  the  corn  kernel.  It  is  located  near  the  center  and  upper 
side  of  the  kernel.  It  contains  a  large  percentage  of  protein 
and  oil.  About  10  per  cent  of  the  kernel  is  embryo. 

Equipment.  —  1.   A  wash  basin. 

2.   Kernels  of  white,  yellow,  and  red  corn. 

Directions.  —  Make  a  drawing  showing  the  germ  side 
of  a  kernel  of  corn.  Make  a  drawing  of  a  cross  section  and 
a  longitudinal  section  of  a  kernel  of  corn.  Show  in  the  draw- 
ings the  difference  in  structure  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
endosperm. 

Remove  the  hulls  of  white,  yellow,  and  red  kernels  of  dent 
corn  that  have  been  soaked  in  water  for  one  day.  Observe 
the  location  of  color. 

Where  is  the  white  color  located  in  white  corn  ? 

Where  is  the  yellow  color  located  in  yellow  corn? 

Where  is  the  red  color  located  in  red  corn  ? 

What  is  the  color  of  the  endosperm  in  red  corn? 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  81 

STUDENT'S   NOTES   AND    REPORT 


82  LABORATORY  MANUAL   OP  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE  20 
THE    EAR    OF  CORN 

Object.  —  To  make  a  study  in  detail  of  an  ear  of  corn. 

Explanation.  —  Ears  of  corn  vary  in  size,  shape,  number 
of  rows,  number  of  kernels  per  ear,  and  in  their  general 
appearance.  This  variation  occurs  in  different  types  of 
corn,  in  different  varieties  of  corn,  and  in  different  ears  of 
corn  of  the  same  variety. 

Equipment.  —  1.  Two  ten-ear  samples  of  corn  of  different 
varieties. 

2.  A  foot  rule. 

3.  A  yard  tape  line. 

4.  A  torsion  balance,  weighing  to  half  a  gram. 
Directions.  —  Number  the  ears  from  one  to  ten.     Use 

the  blank  outline  below  and  fill  in  the  following  data  for 
the  two  samples  of  corn.  Record  the  length  and  circum- 
ference of  each  ear  in  inches.  Record  the  weight  of  each 
ear  in  grams.  Record  the  number  of  rows  per  ear,  the 
number  of  kernels  per  row,  and  the  number  of  kernels  for 
each  ear.  Record  the  measurements  for  each  individual 
ear  and  the  average  for  the  sample. 


83 


81 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


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ears  of  the  above  sample  are  required  for  a  bushel? 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


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86 


LABORATORY  MANUAL   OF  AGRICULTURE 


Determine  the  per  cent  of  shelled  corn  in  at  least  two  of 
the  ears  studied. 


EAR  NUMBER 

l 

2 

Weight  of  shelled  corn    

Per  cent  of  shelled  corn  

STUDENT'S   NOTES  AND  REPORT  87 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


EXERCISES  21,   22,   23 
CORN   JUDGING 

Object.  —  To  acquire  skill  and  obtain  practice  in  select- 
ing seed  ears  of  corn. 

Explanation.  —  Corn  judging  is  estimating  the  value  of 
ears  of  corn  for  seed.  It  requires  a  knowledge  of  different 
parts  of  the  ear  of  corn  and  an  appreciation  of  quality  in 
corn  characters.  Ears  of  corn  are  different  in  size,  shape, 
and  appearance.  A  good  corn  judge  should  be  able  to  select 
those  ears  that  are  best  suited  for  planting.  The  score  card 
is  used  to  designate  the  parts  of  an  ear  of  corn  and  the  relative 
value  of  these  parts. 

A  good  ear  of  corn  should  be  nearly  cylindrical,  approx- 
imately 10  to  11  inches  hi  length,  and  7  to  1\  inches  in 
circumference.  The  kernels  and  cob  should  each  be  of 
a  uniform  color.  The  ear  should  be  sound,  the  kernels 
should  be  firm  on  the  cob,  and  the  butt  and  tip  should  be 
covered  with  well-shaped  kernels.  There  should  be  from  six- 
teen to  twenty  rows  of  corn  on  the  ear,  and  the  kernels  should 
be  deep  and  well  shaped,  with  little  space  between  the  rows. 
The  germ  should  be  large  and  bright,  and  the  ear  should  be 
well  matured. 

Different  varieties  of  corn  may  differ  in  their  standard 
of  perfection.  Early  maturing  varieties  are  usually  smaller 

88 


CORN  JUDGING 


89 


FIG.  7.  —  Ears  of  corn  that  approach  the  ideal  type. 


90  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OP   AGRICULTURE 

than  those  maturing  later,  and  corn  growing  in  districts  of 
light  rainfall  has  a  more  shallow  kernel  and  a  smoother 
surface  than  varieties  growing  in  districts  with  an  abundance 
of  rainfall.  Varieties  of  corn  may  also  differ  in  color,  some 
being  white,  some  yellow,  and  some  red.  The  sample  of 
corn  used  for  judging  should  contain  ten  ears  of  the  same 
variety. 

Equipment.  —  1.  One  ten-ear  sample  of  corn  for  each 
member  of  the  class. 

2.  A  foot  rule. 

3.  A  tape  line. 

Directions.  —  Number  the  ears  from  one  to  ten.  Com- 
mence with  ear  number  one  and  place  in  the  first  vertical 
column  of  the  score  card  the  scores  that  the  ear  merits. 
Deduct  from  the  perfect  score  for  all  deficiencies  of  the  ear. 

Description  of  Points  of  the  Score  Card 

Shape  of  Ear.  —  A  desirable  type  of  ear  should  be  nearly 
cylindrical.  This  will  permit  an  equal  number  of  rows  from 
butt  to  tip  of  ear,  with  kernels  quite  uniform  in  size.  The 
rows  should  run  straight  the  entire  length  of  the  ear,  and  the 
ear  should  present  a  uniform  shape.  If  the  ear  is  poor  in 
shape,  the  score  for  shape  should  be  decreased. 

Length  of  Ear.  —  The  length  of  ear  may  be  determined 
by  measuring  from  the  extreme  butt  to  the  extreme  tip. 
If  the  ear  is  below  the  standard,  it  should  be  scored  off  accord- 
ing to  the  deficiency.  If  it  is  too  long,  it  is  likely  to  have 
broad  and  shallow  kernels,  with  an  inferior  butt  and  tip,  and 
the  score  should  be  reduced  accordingly. 


CORN  JUDGING  91 

Circumference  of  Ear.  —  The  circumference  of  ear  is 
determined  by  measuring  the  ear  one  third  the  distance 
from  the  butt  to  the  tip.  Small  circumference  of  ear  in- 
dicates a  small  amount  of  corn.  Ears  too  large  in  circum- 
ference are  likely  to  be  immature,  and  are,  therefore,  of  less 
value.  For  such  deficiencies  the  score  should  be  decreased. 

Color  of  Kernel.  —  A  uniform  color,  true  to  the  variety, 
indicates  purity.  If  there  is  a  difference  in  color,  or  if  there 
are  grains  that  differ  in  color  from  that  of  the  variety  stand- 
ard, a  mixture  is  indicated,  and  the  score  should  be  reduced. 

Color  of  Cob.  —  Usually  yellow  varieties  of  corn  have  red 
cobs,  and  white  varieties  have  white  cobs.  If  the  cob  is 
not  correct  in  color,  a  mixture  is  indicated,  and  the  score 
should  be  reduced. 

Butt  of  Ear.  —  The  butt  of  the  ear  should  be  well  filled 
out  with  kernels  of  uniform  shape. 

Tip  of  Ear.  —  The  rows  of  kernels  should  extend  the  full 
length  of  the  ear,  covering  the  tip  with  kernels  of  uniform 
size  and  shape. 

Shape  of  Kernels.  —  Desirable  kernels  should  be  wedge- 
shaped  ;  that  is,  they  should  be  wider  across  the  crown  than 
at  the  tip  of  the  kernel.  The  thickness  should  be  about  one 
half  the  width,  and  they  should  have  a  large,  well-developed 
germ.  The  kernels  on  the  different  parts  of  the  ear  should 
be  uniform  in  shape  and  size.  This  is  essential  to  secure 
a  uniform  distribution  in  planting. 

Depth  of  Kernels.  —  The  amount  of  corn  on  an  ear  depends 
largely  upon  the  depth  of  the  kernels.  From  this  point 
of  view  it  would  seem  desirable  to  have  as  deep  a  kernel 
as  possible.  Experiments  seem  to  indicate,  however,  that 


92  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF   AGRICULTURE 

kernels  of  medium  depth  are  preferable  to  deeper  ones,  and 
will  perhaps  produce  a  larger  yield  and  better  quality  of  corn. 

Furrows  between  Rows.  —  If  the  crowns  of  the  kernels 
are  rounded  off  on  top,  there  is  likely  to  be  space  between  the 
rows.  This  condition  is  usually  associated  with  a  shallow 
grain,  and  indicates  a  small  per  cent  of  corn. 

Space  between  Kernels  at  Cob.  —  The  kernels  should  be 
close  together  at  the  tips.  Space  between  the  tips  of  the 
kernels,  next  to  the  cob,  indicates  immaturity  and  weak 
vitality. 

Composition  and  Feeding  Value.  —  By  far  the  largest  part 
of  the  corn  kernel  is  starch.  It  also  contains  protein  and  oil. 
The  protein  and  oil  are  higher  in  feeding  value  than  starch, 
and  high  content  of  these  substances  is  indicated  by  a  large 
per  cent  of  the  horny  endosperm  and  large  germ. 

Vitality.  —  It  is  essential  that  corn  used  for  seed  should 
be  of  strong  vitality.  The  ear  should  be  well  matured. 
The  kernels  should  be  sound  and  firm  on  the  cob.  The 
germ  should  be  large.  Small,  wrinkled,  or  dull-colored  germs 
indicate  low  vitality. 

Soundness  or  Freedom  from  Injury.  —  Mold  or  fungous 
disease  not  only  indicates  decreased  vitality,  but  it  decreases 
the  market  value  of  the  corn.  Kernels  that  are  cracked, 
or  injured  by  various  insects,  are  of  less  value,  and  should 
be  scored  against  accordingly. 

Careful  examination  should  be  made  of  the  various  parts 
of  the  ear  as  given  on  the  score  card.  In  examining  the 
kernels,  two  or  more  kernels  should  be  removed  from  near 
the  center  of  the  ear  so  that  a  better  estimate  may  be  formed 
of  their  worth.  If  an  ear  is  very  poor  in  some  quality,  it 


CORN  JUDGING  93 

may  be  scored  very  low  or  even  zero  for  that  point.  After 
a  score  is  given  for  each  point  the  column  should  be  added. 
The  sum  is  the  score  of  the  ear.  It  requires  a  very  good 
ear  to  score  higher  than  85  per  cent. 

After  the  ears  have  been  scored,  place  them  in  the  order 
of  their  worth,  placing  the  best  ear  first,  the  second-best 
ear  second,  etc.,  for  the  ten  ears. 


94 


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EXERCISE  24 
A    STUDY    OF    SHELLED    CORN 

Object.  —  To  study  corn  with  reference  to  its  quality 
and  commercial  grade ;  and  to  become  familiar  with  different 
classes  and  grades  of  corn. 

Explanation.  —  Practically  two  thirds  of  the  corn  crop 
of  the  United  States  is  produced  in  eight  states:  Illinois, 
Iowa,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Missouri,  Indiana,  Ohio,  and 
Texas.  Within  these  same  eight  states  the  live-stock  in- 
dustry has  been  developed  to  the  greatest  extent.  While 
corn  is  used  almost  exclusively  as  a  food  for  live  stock,  large 
quantities  are  sold  on  the  commercial  market  before  reaching 
final  destination.  For  the  proper  classification  of  corn  of 
varying  quality  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  system  of  grading. 
In  determining  quality  it  is  necessary  to  consider  purity, 
condition,  color,  and  size  of  kernels. 

Equipment.  —  1.  Four  ten  to  twelve  pound  samples  of 
corn  representing  different  grades. 

2.  A  weight-per-bushel  tester. 

3.  A  balance  weighing  to  a  half  gram. 

Directions.  —  Weigh  out  fifty  grams  of  corn  from  one  of 
the  samples,  and  make  a  detailed  study  of  it.  Use  the  out- 
line form  "  A  Study  of  Shelled  Corn  "  to  record  the  results 
of  the  examination.  Classify  the  sample  of  corn  under  ob- 

100 


A  STUDY  OF  SHELLED  CORN  101 

servation  as  yellow,  white,  or  mixed,  according  to  the  rules 
governing  the  inspection  and  grading  of  corn  that  are  in- 
cluded in  this  exercise.  Record  the  class  name  in  the  col- 
umn for  that  sample  number  for  classification. 

Spread  the  sample  out  on  a  blank  piece  of  paper  and  make 
a  detailed  study  for  each  of  the  divisions  given  below. 

Purity.  —  Make  a  study  of  purity  by  separating  the 
sample  into  the  following  groups :  corn,  other  grains, 
foreign  matter.  Weigh  each  group  and  record  its  weight 
and  percentage  in  the  blank  form  in  the  column  of  the  sample 
number.  Weigh  to  one  half  of  one  gram.  Quantities  less 
than  one  half  of  one  gram  may  be  indicated  as  "  trace." 
All  the  groups  of  the  division  should  total  100  per  cent  for 
purity. 

For  the  remainder  of  the  determinations  in  the  study 
of  this  exercise  use  twenty-five  grams  of  the  corn  from  which 
other  grain  and  foreign  matter  have  been  removed. 

Condition.  —  Make  a  study  of  condition  by  separating 
this  sample  into  the  following  groups :  sound  kernels ; 
cracked  or  broken  kernels;  rotten,  decayed,  or  otherwise 
injured  kernels.  Weigh  and  record  the  weight  and  per  cent  of 
each  group.  The  total  for  condition  should  be  100  per  cent. 

Color.  —  The  predominating  colors  in  corn  are  white  and 
yellow.  Other  common  colors  are  red,  speckled,  and  blue. 
Corn  of  the  latter  colors  are  less  likely  to  be  pure  in  color 
in  large  lots,  and  are  usually  designated  as  mixed.  Make 
a  study  of  color  by  separating  the  sample  into  the  following 
groups :  white,  yellow,  and  mixed.  Weigh  and  record  the 
weight  and  per  cent  in  each  group.  The  total  for  color 
should  be  100  per  cent. 


102  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Size.  —  Separate  the  sample  into  the  following  groups  for 
size:  large  kernels;  medium-size  kernels;  small  kernels. 
Weigh  and  record  the  weight  and  per  cent  of  each  group. 
The  total  for  size  should  be  100  per  cent. 

Separate  from  the  sample  one  hundred  average-size  ker- 
nels. Weigh  them  and  record  their  weight.  Compare  the 
weight  of  one  hundred  average-size  kernels  in  the  different 
samples  studied. 

The  weight  per  bushel  may  be  determined  by  using  the 
weight-per-bushel  tester.  Determine  the  weight  per  bushel 
of  the  sample  by  pouring  the  corn  in  very  lightly  over  the  top 
or  side  of  the  tester  and  without  shaking  or  packing.  Draw 
the  bar  or  straight  edge  once  across  the  top  of  the  tester  so 
that  it  will  be  filled  just  level  with  the  top.  Adjust  the 
tester  by  moving  the  weight  out  on  the  bar  until  it  just  bal- 
ances. The  scale  on  the  bar  by  the  weight  indicates  the 
weight  per  bushel.  Record  weight  per  bushel  of  sample. 

The  commercial  grade  is  determined  by  the  foregoing 
factors,  and  a  grade  is  given  according  to  the  quality  of  the 
sample.  The  grain  inspection  departments  of  the  various 
states  provide  rules  for  the  inspection  and  grading  of  corn. 
The  following  rules  govern  the  inspection  of  corn  in  Kansas : 

White  Corn 

No.  1.  White  Corn.  —  Shall  be  pure  white  corn  and  sweet. 

No.  2.  White  Corn.  —  Shall  be  fifteen-sixteenths  white  and 
sweet. 

No.  3.  White  Corn.  —  Shall  be  fifteen-sixteenths  white  and 
sweet. 


A  STUDY  OF  SHELLED  CORN  103 

No.  4. ,  White  Corn.  —  Shall  be  fifteen-sixteenths  white, 
but  shall  include  tough,  musty,  and  damaged  corn. 

(Mixed  corn  and  yellow  corn  have  separate  rules,  but 
the  rules  are  the  same  other  than  color.  In  yellow,  seven- 
eighths  is  used  instead  of  fifteen-sixteenths,  as  in  white.) 

The  per  cent  of  moisture  contained  in  corn  affects  its 
quality.  Corn  with  a  high  per  cent  of  moisture  is  usually 
tough  and  is  given  a  lower  grade. 

Corn  to  grade  No.  1  is  not  allowed  to  have  over  15 
per  cent  of  moisture ;  to  grade  No.  2  not  over  16  per  cent ; 
to  grade  No.  3  not  over  19  per  cent;  to  grade  No.  4  not 
over  22  per  cent. 

Make  a  study  of  as  many  samples  as  the  time  given  per- 
mits. 


104 


LABORATORY   MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


STUDENT'S   NOTES  AND    KKI'oKT 
A  STUDY  OF  SHELLED  COKN 


CLASSIFICATION 

SAMPLE  NUMBER 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Wt. 

Per 

Cent 

Wt. 

Per 
Cent 

Wt. 

Per 
Cent 

Wt. 

Per 
Cent 

Purity 

Con- 
dition 

Color    < 

Size      < 

Weight 
size  k 
Weight 
Comme 

'Corn     .... 
Other  grains 
Foreign  matter  . 

Sound    corn  .     . 
Cracked  or 
broken  .     .     . 
Rotten,  decayed, 
or  injured  .     . 

'White  .... 
Yellow      .     .     . 
.Other  colors  .     . 

'Large  .... 
Medium   .     .     . 
.Small  .... 

of    100  average- 
ernels     .... 
of  one  bushel 
rcial  grade       .     . 

100 

100 

1(K) 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

Too 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

JOO 

100 

Student's  name 


EXERCISE  25 
A   STUDY    OF    THE    WHEAT    HEAD 

Object.  —  To  examine  the  head  of  wheat  and  become 
familiar  with  the  shape  and  arrangement  of  its  different 
parts. 

Explanation.  —  The  head  of  wheat  is  commonly  called  a 
spike.  It  is  made  up  of  several  parts,  of  which  the  grain  is 
the  most  important.  The  head  is  composed  of  a  single  rachis 
and  several  spikelets.  The  spikelets  are  attached  to  the 
rachis.  A  fully  developed  spikelet  has  two  or  more  kernels, 
usually  only  two.  There  is  an  outer  glume,  flowering  glume, 
and  a  palea  for  each  kernel,  except  when  a  third  kernel  de- 
velops. The  third  kernel  of  a  spikelet  does  not  have  an  outer 
glume.  There  is  an  undeveloped  flower  for  each  spikelet. 
Sometimes  the  spikelets  near  the  base  of  the  head  fail  to 
develop.  The  two  divisions  of  a  spikelet  are  similar  in  ar- 
rangement of  parts.  There  is  an  outer  glume  on  each  side 
of  the  spikelet,  and  they  partly  inclose  the  flowering  glumes. 
The  uppermost  part  of  the  outer  glume  is  called  the  beak. 
The  notch  just  below  the  beak  forms  the  shoulder,  and  the 
heavy  line  running  from  the  beak  to  the  base  is  called  the 
keel.  The  flowering  glume  is  just  within  the  outer  glume  and 
bears  the  beard  or  awn.  The  kernel  is  inclosed  by  the  flower- 
ing glume  on  the  outside  and  by  another  husk  called  the  palea 

105 


10G 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


A  STUDY  OF   THE   WHEAT  HEAD  107 

on  the  inside.  The  germ  of  the  kernel  is  at  the  base  and  it  faces 
toward  the  outside.  The  crease  is  on  the  inside  next  to  the 
palea.  The  brush  end  of  the  kernel  extends  upward.  There 
is  an  undeveloped  flower  between  the  two  divisions  of  the 
spikelet.  The  attachment  of  the  spikelet  to  the  rachis  is 
called  the  rachilla.  Figure  8  shows  all  the  different  parts  of 
the  spike. 

Equipment.  —  Heads  of  wheat  sufficient  to  supply  all 
members  of  the  class. 

Directions.  —  Make  two  drawings  of  the  entire  head  of 
wheat,  one  showing  the  side  and  one  showing  the  edge  view. 
Remove  a  single  well-developed  spikelet  and  make  a  drawing 
of  it.  Draw  a  single  outer  glume ;  a  single  flowering  glume; 
and  the  palea.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  kernel  showing  the 
crease  side,  one  showing  the  germ  side,  and  one  showing  the 
cross  section.  Remove  all  the  spikelets  from  the  head  and 
make  a  drawing  of  the  rachis.  Make  all  drawings  at  least 
four  times  the  natural  size  except  the  head  and  rachis.  Make 
them  in  careful  detail  and  name  all  the  different  parts. 

Fill  out  the  following  description  for  five  average-size 
heads  of  wheat. 


108 


LABORATORY   MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


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STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  109 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND    REPORT 


110  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE  26 
A    STUDY    OF    THE    RYE    HEAD 

Object.  —  To  examine  the  head  of  rye  and  become 
familiar  with  the  shape  and  arrangement  of  its  different 
parts. 

Explanation.  —  The  head  of  rye  is  commonly  called  a  spike. 
It  is  made  up  of  several  parts,  of  which  the  grain  is  the  most 
important.  The  head  is  composed  of  a  single  rachis  and 
several  spikelets.  The  spikelets  are  attached  to  both  sides 
of  the  rachis.  There  are  two  divisions  of  the  spikelet,  each 
division  containing  one  kernel.  There  is  an  outer  glume, 
a  flowering  glume,  and  a  palea  for  each  kernel.  The  kernel  is 
inclosed  by  the  flowering  glume  on  the  outside  and  the  palea 
on  the  inside.  The  flowering  glume  does  not  entirely  inclose 
the  kernel,  and  a  small  portion  of  it  is  exposed.  The  outer 
glume  is  small  and  does  not  inclose  the  flowering  glume.  The 
rye  kernel  is  similar  to  the  kernel  of  wheat,  though  it  is  some- 
what more  slender,  more  pointed  at  the  germ  end,  and  the 
crease  is  not  so  deep.  There  are  only  two  flowers  in  a  spike- 
let,  and  both  of  them  develop. 

Equipment.  —  Heads  of  rye  sufficient  to  supply  all  the 
members  of  the  class. 

Directions.  —  Make  two  drawings  of  the  entire  head  of  rye. 
Make  a  drawing  showing  the  side  view,  then  turn  the  head 

111 


112 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


one  fourth  way  around  and 
make  the  second  drawing. 
Remove  a  single  well- 
developed  spikelet  and 
make  a  drawing  of  it. 
Draw  a  single  outer  glume, 
a  single  flowering  glume, 
and  the  palea.  Make  a 
drawing  showing  the  crease 
side,  one  showing  the  germ 
side,  and  one  showing  the 
cross  section  of  the  kernel. 
Remove  all  the  spikelets 
from  the  head  and  make 
drawing  of  the  rachis. 
Make  all  drawings  at  least 
four  times  their  natural 
size,  except  those  of  the 
A  head  and  rachis.  Make 

FIG.  9  —  ^,  a  head  of  rye;  B,  a  single    them  in  careful  detail  and 
spikelet ;   C,  a  kernel  of  rye  showing 

germ  side.  name  all  the  different  parts. 


A  STUDY  OF  THE  RYE  HEAD 


113 


Fill  out  the  accompanying  outline  for  five    average-size 
heads  of  rye. 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


No.  OF  HEAD 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

No  of  spikelets   

No.  of  kernels  for  the  head  .     . 

Average  no.  of  kernels  for  each 
spikelet 

Give  length  of  awns     .... 

Give  color  of  glumes    .... 

114  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  115 

STUDENT'S   NOTES   AND    REPORT 


EXERCISES  27  AND  28 
A   STUDY   OF   WHEAT 

Object.  —  To  study  samples  of  wheat  with  reference  to 
their  quality  and  commercial  grade,  and  to  become  familiar 
with  different  classes  and  grades  of  wheat. 

Explanation.  —  The  principal  use  of  wheat  is  for  the  pro- 
duction of  flour.  Wheats  differ  in  their  milling  value,  de- 
pending largely  upon  the  quality.  In  determining  quality 
it  is  necessary  to  consider  purity,  soundness,  color,  texture, 
size,  and  other  conditions  of  the  kernel.  The  student  should 
become  familiar  with  the  quality  of  different  classes  of  wheat, 
such  as  hard  winter,  soft  winter,  hard  spring,  durum,  etc. 
Representative  samples  of  different  classes  and  grades  of 
wheat  are  used  in  this  study. 

Equipment.  —  1.   Four  ten-pound  samples  of  wheat. 

2.  Type  samples  of  wheat,  showing  color  and  class. 

3.  Balances  weighing  to  one  half  of  one  gram. 

4.  A  weight-per-bushel  tester. 

Directions.  —  Weigh  out  twenty  grams  of  wheat  from  one 
of  the  samples,  and  make  a  detailed  study  of  it.  Use  the 
outline  form  "  A  Study  of  Wheat"  to  record  the  results  of  the 
examination.  Compare  the  sample  of  wheat  under  observa- 
tion with  named  type  sample  for  identification.  Record  the 
type  name  in  the  column  for  that  sample  number  for  classi- 
fication. 

116 


A  STUDY  OF  WHEAT  117 

Spread  the  sample  out  on  a  blank  piece  of  paper  and  make 
a  detailed  study  of  each  of  the  divisions  given  below. 

Purity.  —  Make  a  study  of  purity  by  separating  the  sample 
into  the  following  groups :  wheat  of  class ;  other  wheats ; 
other  grains ;  foreign  matter.  Weigh  each  group  and  record 
its  weight  and  per  cent  of  the  sample  in  the  blank  form  in  the 
column  of  that  sample  number.  Weigh  to  one  half  of  one 
gram.  Quantities  less  than  one  half  gram  may  be  indicated 
as  "trace."  All  the  groups  of  the  division  should  total  100 
per  cent  for  purity. 

For  the  remainder  of  the  determinations  in  this  exercise 
use  ten  grams  of  the  wheat  from  which  other  grains  and  for- 
eign matter  have  been  removed.  This  includes  "  wheat  of 
class  "  and  "  other  wheats,"  as  obtained  by  the  first  separa- 
tion. 

Soundness.  —  Make  a  study  of  soundness  by  separating  the 
kernels  of  this  sample  into  the  following  groups :  sound ; 
broken;  shriveled;  sprouted;  heat  damaged.  Weigh  and 
record  the  weight  and  per  cent  in  each  group.  The  total  for 
soundness  should  be  100  per  cent. 

Color.  —  Color  in  wheat  is  represented  by  different  colors 
and  shades,  as  amber,  dark  amber,  yellowish,  and  white. 
Kernels  subjected  to  adverse  weather  conditions  are  likely 
to  be  discolored,  and  are  known  as  bleached.  The  kernels 
should  be  compared  with  type  samples  representing  the  dif- 
ferent colors  found  in  wheat.  Light  amber  is  represented  by 
durum  wheat ;  amber  by  the  common  hard  winter  wheats ; 
dark  amber  by  hard  winter  wheats  of  a  very  dark  color; 
yellowish  includes  those  kernels  which  are  yellow  or  have 
yellow  sides,  and  are  often  found  in  the  hard  winter  wheats. 


118  LABORATORY   MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

White  wheats  are  represented  by  the  very  light  colored  wheats 
grown  largely  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Bleached  wheat  may  be 
kernels  of  any  color  which  have  been  badly  discolored  by 
adverse  weather  conditions.  Make  a  study  of  the  color  by 
separating  the  sample  into  the  following  groups:  light 
amber,  amber,  dark  amber,  yellow,  white,  and  bleached. 
Weigh,  and  record  the  weight  and  per  cent  in  each  group. 
The  total  for  color  should  be  100  per  cent. 

Texture.  —  Texture  in  wheat  may  be  classed  as  hard, 
medium,  and  soft.  Texture  is  closely  associated  with  color. 
Amber-colored  wheats  are  usually  hard  in  texture.  Wheats 
that  have  a  tendency  to  become  yellowish  are  usually  of  a 
medium  texture.  Wheats  that  are  yellow  or  white  are  likely 
to  be  soft.  Texture  may  also  be  determined  by  crushing 
typical  kernels. 

Make  a  study  of  the  texture  by  separating  the  sample  into 
the  following  groups :  hard,  medium,  soft.  Weigh,  and  record 
the  weight  and  per  cent  in  each  group.  The  total  for  tex- 
ture should  be  100  per  cent. 

Size.  —  Divide  the  sample  into  the  following  groups : 
large  kernels,  medium  kernels,  and  small  kernels.  Weigh 
and  determine  per  cent  of  each  group.  Record  weight  and 
per  cent  in  the  blank  form.  The  total  for  size  should  be 
100  per  cent. 

Separate  from  the  sample  100  average-size  kernels.  Weigh 
and  record  weight.  Compare  the  weight  of  100  average-size 
kernels  in  the  different  samples  studied.  The  size  of  kernels 
differs  in  different  classes  of  wheat. 

The  weight  per  bushel  is  determined  by  using  the  weight- 
per-bushel  tester.  Determine  the  weight  per  bushel  of  the 


A  STUDY  OF  WHEAT  119 

sample  by  pouring  the  wheat  in  lightly  over  the  top  or  sides 
of  the  tester  without  shaking  or  packing.  Draw  the  bar 
or  straightedge  once  across  the  top  of  the  tester  so  that  it 
will  be  filled  just  level  to  the  top.  Adjust  the  tester  by 
moving  the  weight  out  on  the  bar  until  it  just  balances.  The 
scale  on  the  bar  by  the  weight  indicates  the  weight  per  bushel. 
Record  weight  per  bushel  of  the  sample. 

The  commercial  grade  is  determined  by  the  foregoing 
factors,  and  a  grade  is  given  according  to  the  quality  of  the 
sample.  The  grain  inspection  departments  of  the  various 
states  provide  rules  for  the  inspection  and  grading  of  wheat. 
The  following  rules  govern  the  inspection  of  hard  winter 
wheat  for  Kansas : 

Hard  Winter  Wheat 

No.  1.  Dark  Hard.  —  Shall  be  hard  winter  wheat  of  the 
dark  variety,  sound,  sweet,  dry,  plump,  and  clean,  and  shall 
weigh  not  less  than  sixty-one  pounds  to  the  bushel. 

No.  2.  Dark  Hard.  —  Shall  be  hard  winter  wheat  of  the 
dark  variety,  sound,  sweet,  dry,  plump,  and  clean,  and  shall 
weigh  not  less  than  fifty-nine  pounds  to  the  bushel.  , 

No.  3.  Dark  Hard.  —  Shall  be  hard  winter  wheat  of  the 
dark  variety,  sound,  sweet,  dry;  some  grains  may  be 
bleached ;  not  clean  or  plump  enough  for  No.  2 ;  shall  weigh 
not  less  than  fifty-six  pounds  to  the  bushel. 

No.  4.  Dark  Hard.  —  Shall  be  hard  winter  wheat  of  the 
dark  variety,  tough,  sprouted,  or  from  other  causes  so  badly 
damaged  as  to  render  it  unfit  for  No.  3. 

Other  classes  of  wheat  are  graded  in  a  similar  manner. 

Make  a  study  of  as  many  other  samples  as  the  time  permits. 


120 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 
A  STUDY  OF  WHEAT 


CLASSIFICATION 

SAMPLE  NUMBER 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Purity 
Soundness 

Color 

Texture 

Size 
Weight  of 

Wheat  of  class    .     . 
Other  wheat  . 
Other  grains  .     .     . 
Foreign  matter  .     . 
Total      .     .     .     . 

Sound  kernels     .     . 
Broken  kernels 
Shriveled  kernels     . 
Sprouted  kernels 
Heat-damaged  ker- 
nels     .... 
Total      .... 

Light  amber  .     .     . 

Wt. 

Per 
Cent 

Wt. 

Per 
Cent 

Wt. 

Per 
Cent 

Wt. 

Per 
Cent 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

Dark  amber  .     .     . 
Yellowish  .... 
White   
Bleached   .... 
Total      .... 

Hard  (flinty)  .     .     . 
Medium     .... 
Soft  (starchy)     .     . 
Total      .... 

[Large    

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

Medium    .... 
Small    

Total      .... 
100  average-size  ker- 

100 

100 

100 

100 

Weight  per 
Commercia 

bushel     

Date 


Student's  Name 


EXERCISE  29 
A    STUDY    OF   RYE 

Object.  —  To  study  samples  of  rye  with  reference  to  their 
quality  and  commercial  grade,  and  to  become  familiar  with 
different  grades  of  rye. 

Explanation.  —  Rye  is  used  for  the  production  of  flour  for 
bread,  for  malting  purposes,  and  to  some  extent  for  feed  for 
live  stock.  Rye  is  not  extensively  grown  in  the  United 
States.  There  are  not  as  many  varieties  of  rye  as  of  wheat. 
There  is  a  variation  in  texture  and  color,  but  it  is  not  as  im- 
portant as  in  wheat.  There  is  usually  but  one  class  of  rye 
recognized  on  the  commercial  market.  Different  grades  of 
rye  are  recognized,  and  the  commercial  grade  given  depends 
upon  the  quality.  The  student  should  become  familiar  with 
the  different  factors  that  affect  the  quality  of  rye.  Repre- 
sentative samples  of  different  grades  of  rye  are  used  in  this 
study. 

Equipment.  —  1.  Four  ten-pound  samples  of  rye. 

2.  A  weight-per-bushel  tester. 

3.  A  balance  weighing  to  one  half  gram. 

Directions.  —  Weigh  out  twenty  grams  of  rye  from  one  of 
the  samples  and  make  a  careful  study  of  it.  Use  the  ac- 
companying outline  form  "A  Study  of  Rye,"  to  record  the 
results  of  the  examination. 

121 


122  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Spread  the  sample  out  on  a  blank  piece  of  paper  and  make 
a  detailed  study  of  each  of  the  divisions  given  below. 

Purity.  —  Make  a  study  of  purity  by  separating  the  sam- 
ple into  the  following  groups :  rye ;  other  grains ;  foreign 
matter.  Weigh  each  group  and  record  the  weight  and  per 
cent.  For  the  remainder  of  the  determinations  in  this  study 
use  ten  grams  of  rye  from  which  other  grains  and  foreign 
matter  have  been  removed. 

Soundness.  —  Make  a  study  of  soundness  by  separating 
the  kernels  of  the  sample  into  the  following  groups :  sound, 
broken,  shriveled ;  sprouted ;  heat  damaged,  or  otherwise 
injured.  Weigh,  and  record  the  weight  and  per  cent  in  each 
group.  The  total  for  soundness  should  be  100  per  cent. 

Size.  —  Separate  the  sample  into  kernels  of  the  following 
groups :  large,  medium,  small.  Weigh,  and  record  weight 
and  per  cent  of  each  group  on  the  blank  form.  The  total  for 
size  should  be  100  per  cent. 

Separate  from  the  sample  100  average-size  kernels.  Weigh 
and  record  the  weight  of  the  sample  on  the  blank  form  in 
the  column  for  that  sample  number.  Quantities  less  than 
one  tenth  of  one  gram  may  be  indicated  as  "  trace." 

The  weight  per  bushel  is  determined  by  using  the  weight 
per  bushel  tester.  Determine  the  weight  per  bushel  of  the 
sample  as  described  in  Ex.  27.  All  samples  of  rye  are 
placed  in  the  same  class  for  commercial  grading  and  given  a 
commercial  grade  similar  to  wheat.  Designate  the  com- 
mercial grade  of  the  sample. 


A  STUDY  OF  RYE 


123 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 
A  STUDY  OF  RYE 


CLASSIFICATION 

SAMPLE  NUMBER 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Wt. 

Per 

Cent 

Wt. 

Per 

Cent 

Wt. 

Per 
Cent 

Wt. 

Per 
Cent 

Purity    . 

Soundness 

Size    .    .    < 

Weight  of 
ncls     . 

Rye        
Other  grains        .     . 

Foreign  matter   .     . 
Total    

'Sound        .... 
Broken       .... 
Shriveled  .... 
Sprouted   .... 

Heat    damaged,    or 
otherwise  injured 

Total  

100 

100 

100 

100 







100 

100 

100 

100 

Medium     .... 
Small 

Total  
100  average-size  ker- 

100 

100 

100 

100 

Weight  per 
Commercia 

bushel    

grade     

Date 


Student's  Name 


EXERCISE  30 
A    STUDY    OF    THE    BARLEY   HEAD 

Object.  —  To  examine  the  head  of  barley  and  become 
familiar  with  the  shape  and  arrangement  of  its  different 
parts. 

Explanation.  —  The  head  of  barley  is  commonly  called  a 
spike.  It  is  made  up  of  several  parts,  of  which  the  grain  is 
the  most  important.  The  head  of  barley  is  composed  of  a 
single  rachis  and  several  spikelets.  The  spikelets  bear  the 
grain  and  are  attached  to  the  rachis.  A  spikelet  of  barley 
is  made  up  of  two  outer  glumes,  a  flowering  glume,  a  kernel, 
and  palea.  The  outer  glumes  are  small  and  awl-shaped  and 
do  not  inclose  the  flowering  glume  as  in  wheat  and  oats.  The 
flowering  glume  bears  the  beard  or  awn  when  present  and 
incloses  the  greater  part  of  the  kernel.  The  palea  incloses 
the  inner  side  of  the  kernel.  In  most  barleys  the  flower- 
ing glume  and  palea  adhere  to  the  kernel  when  threshed. 
Some  varieties  of  barley,  however,  are  hull-less.  In  hull-less 
barleys  the  flowering  glume  and  palea  do  not  adhere  to 
the  kernel.  The  germ  is  at  the  base  of  the  kernel,  as  in' 
wheat,  and  faces  outward.  The  crease  is  on  the  inside 
next  to  the  palea.  There  are  both  two-rowed  and  six-rowed 
barleys. 

In  the  six-rowed  barleys  the  spikelets  develop  in  groups  of 

124 


A  STUDY  OF  THE  BARLEY  HEAD 


125 


three  on  opposite  sides  of  the  rachis.  In  two-rowed  barleys 
there  is  a  single  row  of  spikelets  on  each  side  of  the  rachis. 
There  is  an  undeveloped  spikelet  on  either  side  of  the  devel- 
oped spikelet.  Each  de- 
veloped spikelet  contains 
but  one  kernel  of  barley. 
Figure  10  shows  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  barley 
spike. 

Equipment.  —  Heads  of 
barley  for  each  member  of 
the  class. 

Directions.  —  Make  two 
drawings  of  the  entire  head 
of  a  six-rowed  barley,  one 
showing  the  side  and  one 
showing  the  edge  view. 
Make  a  drawing  of  a  group 
of  three  spikelets.  Make 
a  drawing  of  a  single  spike- 
let,  showing  the  flowering 
and  outer  glume.  Make 
drawings  of  the  kernel,  one 


c 


FIG.  10.  —  A,  a  head  of  six-rowed  barley ; 
B,  a  single  spikelet  of  barley ;  C,  a 
kernel  of  barley  with  glumes  and 
palea  removed. 


showing  the  germ  side  and 
one  showing  the  cross  sec- 
tion.     Remove     all     the 
spikelets  and  make  a  draw- 
ing of  the  rachis.     Make  all  drawings  at  least  four  times  the 
natural  size,  except  the  head  and  rachis.     Make  them  in 
careful  detail  and  name  all  the  different  parts. 


126  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Fill  out  the  following  description  for  four  heads  of  barley 


NUMBER  or  HEAD 

l 

2 

3 

4 

Kind  of  barley    

Length  of  head  .               

Number  of  kernels  the  head     .... 

Length  of  awns  if  present     

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  127 

STUDENT'S   NOTES    AND    REPORT 


128  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S   NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE  31 
A    STUDY    OF    THE    OAT    HEAD 

Object.  —  To  examine  the  oat  head  and  become  familiar 
with  the  shape  and  arrangement  of  its  different  parts. 

Explanation.  —  The  head  of  oats  is  commonly  called  a 
panicle.  It  is  made  up  of  several  parts,  of  which  the  oat  grain 
is  the  most  important.  The  head  is  composed  of  a  branching 
stem  and  spikelets  containing  the  grain.  The  branches  of 
the  panicle  are  attached  in  groups  to  the  main  stem.  The 
spikelets  are  attached  to  these  branches. 

Each  spikelet  has  two  or  more  kernels,  usually  only  two. 
Each  kernel  is  inclosed  within  a  flowering  glume  and  palea. 
The  kernel,  together  with  the  flowering  glume  and  palea,  is 
known  as  the  grain,  and  is  inclosed  within  the  outer  glume. 
When  the  oat  grain  has  an  awn  or  beard,  it  grows  out  from 
the  back  of  the  flowering  glume.  A  sterile  flower  often  de- 
velops near  the  base  of  the  second  kernel.  The  flowering 
glume  and  palea  adhere  tightly  to  the  kernel  and  are  not 
removed  by  threshing.  One  kernel  is  a  little  larger  than 
the  other.  The  smaller  kernel  develops  near  the  base  of  the 
larger  kernel  and  is  sometimes  almost  inclosed  within  the 
flowering  glume  of  the  larger  kernel.  Figure  11  shows  the 
parts  of  the  oat  panicle. 

K  129 


130 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Equipment.  —  Heads  of  oats  for  each  member  of  the  class. 

Directions.  —  Make  a  drawing  of  the  entire  head  of  oats, 
showing  the  arrangement  of  the  spikelets.  Remove  a  single 
well-developed  spikelet  and  make  a  drawing  of  it.  Draw  a 
single  outer  glume,  a  single  flowering  glume,  and  the  palea. 


A  '  B 

FIG.  11.  —  A,  a  head  of  oats;  B,  a  single  spikelet; 
C,  the  oat  kernel  with  glumes  and  palea  removed, 
showing  the  germ  side. 

Make  a  drawing  of  the  kernel,  showing  the  crease  side, 
one  showing  the  germ  side,  and  one  showing  the  cross  section. 
Make  all  the  drawings  at  least  four  times  the  natural  size, 
except  the  one  of  the  panicle.  Make  them  in  careful  detail 
and  name  the  different  parts. 


A  STUDY  OF  THE  OAT  HEAD  131 

STUDENT'S  NOTES   AND   REPORT 


132  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE  32 
A    STUDY    OF   BARLEY 

Object.  —  To  study  samples  of  barley  with  reference  to 
their  quality  and  commercial  grade ;  and  to  become  familiar 
with  different  classes  and  grades  of  barley. 

Explanation.  —  A  large  amount  of  barley  is  used  as 
a  grain  feed  for  live  stock  on  farms  where  it  is  produced. 
Approximately  one  half  of  the  barley  produced  is  sold  on 
the  commercial  market,  where  it  is  finally  used  either  for 
brewing  or  feeding  purposes.  The  value  of  barley  depends 
largely  upon  the  quality  of  the  grain.  In  determining  quality 
it  is  necessary  to  consider  purity,  soundness,  color,  texture, 
size,  and  other  conditions  of  the  grain.  The  student  should 
become  familiar  with  different  classes  and  grades  of  barley. 

Equipment.  —  1.    Four  ten-pound  samples  of  barley. 

2.  A  weight-per-bushel  tester. 

3.  A  balance  weighing  to  one  half  of  one  gram. 
Directions.  —  Weigh  out  twenty  grams  of  barley  from 

one  of  the  samples,  and  make  a  detailed  study  of  it.  Use 
the  outline  form  "A  Study  of  Barley"  to  record  the  results 
of  the  examination.  Compare  the  sample  of  barley  under 
observation  with  named  type  samples  for  identification. 
Record  type  name  in  the  column  for  that  sample  number 
for  classification. 

133 


134  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Spread  the  sample  out  on  a  blank  piece  of  paper  and  make 
a  detailed  study  of  each  of  the  divisions  given  below. 

Purity.  —  Make  a  study  of  purity  by  separating  the 
sample  into  the  following  groups :  barley  of  class ;  other 
barleys ;  other  grains ;  foreign  matter. 

Weigh  each  group  and  record  the  weight  and  per  cent  of 
the  sample  in  the  blank  form  in  the  column  of  the  sample 
number.  Quantities  less  than  one  tenth  of  one  gram  may 
be  indicated  as  "  trace."  All  the  groups  of  the  division 
should  total  100  per  cent  for  purity. 

For  the  remainder  of  the  determinations  in  this  study 
use  ten  grams  of  the  barley  from  which  other  grains  and 
foreign  matter  have  been  removed.  This  includes  "  barley 
of  class  "  and  "  other  barleys,"  as  obtained  by  the  first 
separation. 

Soundness.  —  Make  a  study  of  soundness  by  separating 
the  sample  into  the  following  groups:  sound  kernels; 
broken  kernels;  shriveled  kernels;  sprouted  kernels;  other 
damaged  kernels.  Weigh  and  record  the  weight  and  per 
cent  of  each  group.  The  total  for  soundness  should  be  100 
per  cent. 

Color.  —  The  color  of  barley  may  be  injured  by  adverse 
weather  conditions  during  harvesting.  A  bright  light  color 
is  desirable.  Make  a  study  of  color  by  separating  the  sample 
into  the  following  groups :  good  color ;  slightly  bleached ; 
discolored.  Weigh  and  record  the  weight  and  per  cent  in 
each  group.  The  total  for  color  should  be  100  per  cent. 

Texture.  —  Texture  in  barley  may  be  classed  as  hard  and 
soft.  The  barleys  of  hard  texture  are  more  vitreous  and 
contain  a  higher  per  cent  of  protein  than  others.  The 


A  STUDY  OF  BARLEY  135 

barleys  that  are  soft  are  usually  higher  in  starch  content. 
Crush  typical  kernels  and  observe  their  hardness. 

Size.  —  Separate  the  sample  into  the  following  groups 
for  size :  large,  medium,  small.  Weigh  and  record  the  per 
cent  of  each  group.  The  total  for  size  should  be  100  per 
cent. 

Separate  from  the  sample  100  average-size  kernels.  Weigh 
them  and  record  their  weight.  Compare  the  weight  of  100 
average-size  kernels  in  the  different  samples  studied.  The 
size  of  kernels  differs  in  different  classes  of  barley.  The 
weight  per  bushel  is  determined  by  using  the  weight-per- 
bushel  tester.  Determine  the  weight  per  bushel  of  the 
sample. 

The  commercial  grade  is  determined  by  the  foregoing 
factors,  and  a  grade  is  given  according  to  the  quality  of  the 
sample.  The  grain  inspection  departments  of  the  various 
states  provide  rules  for  the  inspection  and  grading  of  barley. 
The  following  rules  govern  the  inspection  of  barley  hi  Kansas : 

Barley 

No.  1.  Barley.  —  Shall  be  sound,  bright,  sweet,  clean,  and 
free  from  other  grain. 

No.  2.   Barley.  —  Shall  be  sound,  dry,  and  of  good  color. 

No.  3.  Barley.  —  Shall  include  shrunken,  stained,  dry 
barley,  unfit  to  grade  No.  2. 

No.  4.   Barley.  —  Shall  include  tough,  musty,  dirty  barley. 

Make  a  study  of  as  many  other  samples  as  the  time  permits. 


136 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 
A  STUDY  OF  BARLEY 


CLASSIFICATION 

SAMPLE  NCMBKB 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Wt. 

Per 

Cent 

Wt. 

Per 

Cent 

Wt. 

Per 
Cent 

Wt. 

Per 
Cent 

Purity    . 

Soundness 

Color.    . 

Size    .    . 

Weight  of  1 
Weight  of  ( 
Commcrcia 

Barley  of  class      .     . 
Other  barleys        .     . 
Other  grains     . 
Foreign  matter     .     . 
Total     .... 

Sound  kernels       .     . 
Broken  kernels     .     . 
Shriveled  kernels 
Sprouted  kernels 
Other  damaged  kernels 
Total     .... 

Good  color  (bright)  . 
Slightly  bleached 
Discolored  .... 
Total     .... 

Large       
Medium       .... 
Small       
Total     .... 

00  average-size  kernels 
>ne  bushel     .... 
1  grade      

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

UK) 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

Date  _  _  .     Student's  Name 


EXERCISE  33 
A   STUDY   OF   OATS 

Object.  —  To  study  samples  of  oats  with  reference  to 
their  quality  and  commercial  grade,  and  to  become  familiar 
with  different  classes  and  grades  of  oats. 

Explanation.  —  A  large  proportion  of  the  oats  produced 
in  the  United  States  is  used  as  grain  for  live  stock  on  farms 
where  grown.  Some  oats  is  sold  on  the  commercial  market, 
a  part  of  it  being  used  for  cereal  foods  and  for  feeding 
purposes.  The  value  of  oats  depends  largely  upon  the  quality 
of  the  grain.  In  determining  value  it  is  necessary  to  con- 
sider purity,  soundness,  color,  size,  and  other  conditions  of 
the  grain.  The  student  should  become  familiar  with  dif- 
ferent classes  and  grades  of  oats. 

Equipment.  —  1.    Four  ten-pound  samples  of  oats. 

2.  Weight-per-bushel  tester. 

3.  Balance  weighing  to  one  half  gram. 

4.  Named  type  sample  of  oats. 

Directions.  —  Weigh  out  twenty  grams  of  oats  from  one 
of  the  samples  and  make  a  detailed  study  of  it.  Use  the 
accompanying  outline  form  "  A  Study  of  Oats"  to  record  the 
results  of  the  examination.  Compare  the  sample  of  oats 
under  observation  with  named  type  samples  for  identifica- 
tion. Record  the  type  name  in  the  column  for  that  sample 

137 


i:»S     LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

number  under  classification  in  the  accompanying  outline 
form. 

Spread  the  sample  out  on  a  blank  piece  of  paper  and  make 
a  detailed  study  of  each  of  the  divisions  given  below : 

Purity.  —  Make  a  study  of  purity  by  separating  the  sample 
into  the  following  groups :  oats  of  class ;  other  oats ;  other 
grains ;  foreign  matter.  Weigh  each  group  and  record  the 
weight  and  per  cent  of  the  sample  in  the  blank  form  in  the 
column  of  that  sample  number.  Quantities  less  than  one 
tenth  of  one  gram  may  be  indicated  as  "trace."  All  the 
groups  of  the  division  should  total  100  per  cent  for  purity. 

For  the  remaining  determinations  in  this  study  use  ten 
grams  of  the  oats  from  which  other  grains  and  foreign  matter 
have  been  removed. 

Soundness.  —  Make  a  study  of  soundness  by  separating 
this  sample  into  the  following  groups :  sound  kernels ;  in- 
jured kernels.  Weigh,  and  record  the  weight  and  per  cent  of 
each  group.  The  total  for  soundness  should  be  100  per  cent. 

Color.  —  There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  color  of 
oats,  as  white,  yellowish,  brownish,  red,  and  black.  Oats 
is  sometimes  discolored  by  adverse  weather  conditions, 
and  the  original  color  is  obscure.  Separate  the  sample  into 
the  different  colors  named  above.  Weigh,  and  record  the 
weight  and  per  cent  in  each  group.  The  total  for  color 
should  be  100  per  cent. 

Size.  —  Separate  the  sample  into  the  following  groups  for 
size :  large,  medium,  small.  Weigh,  and  record  the  weight 
and  per  cent  of  each  group.  The  total  for  size  should  be 
100  per  cent. 

Separate  from  the  sample  100  average-size  kernels.    Weigh 


A  STUDY  OF  OATS  139 

them  and  record  their  weight.  Compare  the  weight  of  100 
average-size  kernels  in  the  different  samples  studied.  The 
size  of  kernels  differs  in  the  different  classes  of  oats. 

The  weight  per  bushel  is  determined  by  using  the  weight- 
per-bushel  tester,  as  has  been  described  in  Ex.  27.  Deter- 
mine the  weight  per  bushel  of  the  sample. 

The  commercial  grade  is  determined  by  the  foregoing 
factors,  and  the  grade  is  given  according  to  the  quality  of 
the  sample.  The  grain  inspection  department  of  the  various 
states  provide  rules  for  the  grading  of  oats.  The  following 
rules  govern  the  inspection  and  grading  of  white  oats  in 
Kansas : 

No.  1.  White  Oats.  —  Shall  be  pure  white  oats,  dry, 
sweet,  sound,  clean,  and  free  from  other  grain. 

No.  2.  White  Oats.  —  Shall  be  seven-eighths  white,  sound, 
dry,  and  contain  not  more  than  1  per  cent  each  of  dirt  and 
foreign  matter  or  3  per  cent  of  other  grain. 

No.  3.  White  Oats.  —  Shall  be  seven-eighths  white,  sound, 
dry,  and  not  more  than  3  per  cent  of  dirt  or  foreign  matter 
nor  5  per  cent  of  other  grain. 

No.  4.  White  Oats.  —  Shall  be  seven-eighths  white,  tough, 
musty,  or  from  any  cause  unfit  for  No.  3. 

Make  a  study  of  as  many  other  samples  as  the  time  permits. 


140 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OP  AGRICULTURE 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 
A  STUDY  OF  OATS 


CLASSIFICATION 

SAMPLE  NUMBER 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Wt. 

Per 

Cent 

Wt. 

Per 

Cent 

Wt. 

Per 
Cent 

Wt. 

Per 
Cent 

Purity  .    . 
Soundness  • 

Color  .     . 

MH    .   .  j 

Weight  of  1 
nels 

Oats  of  class       .    . 
Other  oats     .     .     . 
Other  grains       .     . 
Foreign  matter  .     . 
Total    .... 
[Sound  kernels    .     . 
Injured  kernels 
Total    .... 
White  
Yellowish       .    .     . 
Brownish  .... 
Red       
Black    
Total    .... 
'Large    
Medium    .... 
Small    
Total    .... 
00  average-size  ker- 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

Weight  per  bushel    
Commercial  grade         .... 

Date 


Student's  Name 


EXERCISE  34 
THE  SORGHUM  HEAD 

Object.  —  To  study  the  shape  and  structure  of  the  sorghum 
head. 

Explanation.  —  Sorghum  resembles  corn  somewhat  in 
its  method  of  growth,  but  unlike  corn  the  seed  is  produced 
in  heads  on  the  top  of  the  plants.  The  heads  of  different 
types  of  sorghum  vary  in  shape  and  appearance.  Some  are 
oval  and  compact ;  some  are  long  and  compact ;  and  others 
are  open  and  branching.  The  variety  or  kind  of  sorghum 
is  most  easily  determined  by  a  study  of  the  head  characters. 
The  head  of  sorghum  is  called  a  panicle. 

Equipment.  —  Typical  heads  of  at  least  three  types  of 
sorghum,  one  each  of  kafir,  milo,  and  a  sweet  sorghum  for 
each  member  of  the  class. 

Directions.  —  Make  an  outline  drawing  of  a  typical  head 
of  kafir.  Split  the  head  longitudinally  through  the  center, 
so  that  the  method  of  branching  may  be  more  easily  observed. 
Study  the  branches  of  the  panicle  and  their  arrangement 
and  make  a  drawing  of  the  panicle.  Make  a  similar  study 
and  drawings  of  the  head  of  milo  and  of  the  head  of  sweet 
sorghums.  Fill  in  the  detail  of  these  drawings  as  far  as  time 
permits. 


141 


142  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


STUDENTS  NOTES  AND  REPORT  143 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE  35 
A    STUDY    OF    SORGHUM    SEED 

Object.  —  To  study  the  purity  and  worth  of  sorghum  seed. 

Explanation.  —  There  are  two  general  classes  of  sorghum, 
saccharine  and  nonsaccharine.  Saccharine  sorghum  is 
used  extensively  for  forage  and  for  the  production  of  sorghum 
sirup.  The  seed  of  saccharine  sorghum  has  a  bitter  taste 
and  is  not  generally  used  as  feed  for  live  stock.  However,  it 
has  a  commercial  value  as  it  is  used  extensively  for  planting. 
The  nonsaccharine  sorghums  are  used  extensively  for  forage 
and  their  seed  is  used  for  feed. 

Sorghum  seed  is  more  easily  injured  in  handling  than  most 
of  the  other  small  grain  cereals.  The 'kernels  crack  easily 
in  threshing,  and  their  vitality  is  often  reduced  by  improper 
storing.  Sorghum  seed  of  different  varieties  is  often  some- 
what mixed. 

Equipment.  —  1.  Four  ten  to  twelve  pound  samples  of 
sorghum  seed  representing  the  different  types  of  sorghum. 

2.  A  weight-per-bushel  tester. 

3.  A  balance  weighing  to  one  half  gram. 

4.  Type  samples  of  sorghum  seed. 

Directions.  —  Weigh  out  twenty  grams  of  sorghum  seed 
from  one  of  the  samples  and  make  a  detailed  study  of  it. 
Use  the  outline  form  "  A  Study  of  Sorghum  Seed  "  to  record 

144 


A  STUDY  OF  SORGHUM  SEED  145 

the  results  of  the  examination.  Compare  the  sample  under 
observation  with  named  type  samples  for  identification. 
Record  the  name  in  the  column  of  that  sample  number  for 
classification. 

Spread  the  sample  out  on  a  blank  piece  of  paper  and  make 
a  detailed  study  of  each  of  the  divisions  given  below. 

Purity.  —  Make  a  study  of  purity  by  separating  the  sample 
into  the  following  groups :  sorghum  of  class ;  other  sorghums ; 
other  grains ;  foreign  matter.  Weigh  each  group  and  record 
its  weight  and  per  cent  on  the  blank  form  in  the  column  of 
that  sample  number.  Weigh  accurately  to  one  half  of  one 
gram.  Quantities  less  than  one  half  of  one  gram  may  be 
indicated  as  "  trace."  All  the  groups  of  this  division  should 
total  100  per  cent  for  purity. 

For  the  remainder  of  the  determinations  in  the  study  of 
this  exercise  use  ten  grams  of  sorghum  seed  which  have  been 
separated  from  other  grains  and  foreign  matter. 

Condition.  —  Make  a  study  of  condition  by  separating 
the  ten-grams  sample  into  the  following  group :  sound 
kernels ;  cracked  or  broken  kernels ;  rotten,  decayed,  or 
otherwise  injured  kernels.  Weigh  and  record  the  weight 
and  per  cent  of  each  group.  The  total  for  condition  should 
be  100  per  cent. 

Color.  —  The  color  of  sorghum  seed  depends  largely  upon 
the  type  and  variety.  In  a  pure  variety  there  should  be 
little  variation  in  color.  Make  a  study  of  color  by  separat- 
ing the  sample  into  the  following  groups :  white,  yellow,  red, 
brown,  and  tan.  Use  named  type  samples  of  color  in  deter- 
mining color  of  sample.  Weigh  and  record  the  weight  and 
per  cent  of  each  color.  The  total  for  color  should  be 


146  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

100  per  cent.  Separate  from  the  sample  100  average- 
size  sound  kernels.  Weigh  them  and  record  their  weight. 
Determine  weight  per  bushel  of  sample  as  described  in 
Ex.  27.  Record  the  weight  per  bushel  on  blank  form. 
From  the  data  recorded  on  blank  form,  compute  the  per  cent 
of  the  sample  that  is  sound  seed. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


147 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 
A  STUDY  OF  SORGHUM  SEED 


CLASSIFICATION 

SAMPLE  NUMBER 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Wt. 

Per 

Cent 

Wt. 

Per 

Cent 

Wt. 

Per 

Cent 

Wt. 

Per 

Cent 

Purity    . 
Condition 

Color      . 

Weight  of 
nels 

Sorghum  of  class 
Other  sorghum    . 
Other  grains   .     .     . 
Foreign  matter   .     . 
Total  

100 

100 

100 

100 

Cracked  or  broken  . 
Rotten,  decayed,  in- 
jured .     .     .     . 
Total        .... 
White    

100 

100 

100 

100 

Red  

Brown  

Tan  

Total.     .     .     . 
100  average-size  ker- 

100 

100 

100 

100 

Percentage 
Weight  per 
Per  cent  of 

of  germination 
bushel     

sound  seed        .     .     . 

Date Student's  Name 


EXERCISE  36 
A    STUDY    OF    COWPEAS* 

Object.  —  To  study  the  purity,  condition,  and  worth  of 
cowpea  seed. 

Explanation.  —  Cowpeas  make  nutritious  feed  for  live 
stock,  but  the  value  of  the  seed  is  greater  for  planting 
than  for  feed.  The  seed  is  seldom  used  for  feed  unless  it 
is  badly  cracked  or  broken.  Cowpeas  are  very  easily  broken 
by  threshing,  and  commercial  samples  usually  contain 
broken  seed.  The  worth  of  cowpea  seed  depends  largely 
upon  its  purity  and  condition. 

Equipment.  —  1.  Two  five  to  six  pound  samples  repre- 
senting different  types  of  cowpeas. 

2.  A  weight-per-bushel  tester. 

3.  A  balance  weighing  to  one  half  of  one  gram. 

4.  Type  samples  of  cowpea  seed. 

Directions.  —  Weigh  out  twenty  grams  of  cowpeas  from 
one  of  the  samples  and  make  a  detailed  study  of  it.  Use 
the  outline  form  "  A  Study  of  Cowpeas  "  to  record  the 
results  of  the  examination.  Compare  the  sample  under 
observation  with  named  type  samples  for  identification. 
Record  the  name  in  the  column  of  that  sample  number  for 
classification. 

*  If  soy  beans  are  more  commonly  grown  in  your  community 
than  cowpeas,  substitute  soy  beans  for  cowpeas  in  this  exercise. 

148 


A  STUDY  Of  COWPEAS  149 

Spread  the  sample  out  on  a  blank  piece  of  paper  and  make 
a  detailed  study  of  it  for  each  of  the  divisions  given  below. 

Purity.  —  Make  a  study  of  purity  by  separating  the  sample 
into  the  following  groups :  cowpeas  of  variety  class ;  cow- 
peas  of  other  varieties ;  other  seeds ;  foreign  matter.  Weigh 
each  group  and  record  its  weight  and  per  cent  on  the  blank 
form  in  the  column  of  that  sample  number.  Weigh  ac- 
curately to  one  half  of  one  gram.  Quantities  less  than  one 
half  of  one  gram  may  be  indicated  as  "  trace."  All  the  groups 
for  this  division  should  total  100  per  cent  for  purity.  For 
the  remainder  of  the  determinations  of  this  study  use  ten 
grams  of  cowpea  seed  which  has  been  separated  from 
other  grain  and  foreign  matter. 

Condition.  —  Make  a  study  of  condition  by  separating 
the  ten-gram  sample  into  the  following  groups :  sound  seed ; 
cracked  or  broken  seed ;  moldy  and  otherwise  injured  seed. 
Weigh,  and  record  the  weight  and  per  cent  of  each  group. 
The  total  for  condition  should  be  100  per  cent. 

Color.  —  The  color  of  cowpea  seed  depends  largely  upon 
the  type  and  variety.  There  is  little  variation  in  color 
in  a  pure  variety.  Make  a  study  of  color  by  separating 
the  sample  into  the  following  groups :  white,  light  brown, 
dark  brown,  mottled,  gray,  black,  white  with  black  eye. 
Use  named  type  samples  of  color  in  determining  color  of 
sample.  Weigh,  and  record  weight  and  per  cent  of  each  color. 
The  total  for  color  should  be  100  per  cent.  Separate  from 
the  sample  100  average-size  seeds.  Weigh,  and  record 
their  weight.  Determine  the  weight  per  bushel  of  sample 
as  described  in  Ex.  27.  Record  all  data  on  blank  form. 


150 


LABORATORY  MANUAL   OF  AGRICULTURE 


STUDENT'S  NOTES   AND   REPORT 
A  STUDY  OP  COWPEAS 


CLASSIFICATION 

SAMPLE  NUMBER 

1 

2 

WEIGHT 

PER 
CBMI 

WEIGHT 

PER 

CENT 

Purity    . 
Condition 

Color.    .  < 

Weight  of  ] 
Weight  pei 

Cowpeas  of  variety  class    . 
Cowpeas  of  other  varieties 
Other  seeds    

Foreign  matter  
Total      

100 

100 

Broken  seeds  .     ..'... 

Moldy  and  otherwise  injured 
seeds   

Total      

100 

100 

White    

Light  brown  to  tan    .     .     . 
Dark  brown  

Mottled  gray      
Black     

White  with  black  eye     .    . 
Total      

100 

100 

00  average-size  seeds  of  class 

Date..  Student's  Name. 


EXERCISE  37 
THE   CAPACITY   OF    GRAIN   TO   ABSORB    MOISTURE 

Object.  —  To  determine  the  amount  of  moisture  that  corn 
and  other  grains  will  absorb  when  submerged  in  water; 
also  the  rate  at  which  such  absorption  takes  place. 

Explanation.  —  The  outside  covering  of  the  corn  kernel 
and  other  grains  is  called  the  hull.  It  presents  a  smooth 
and  somewhat  glossy  surface.  The  hull  serves  as  a  pro- 
tection for  the  main  portion  of  the  kernel.  Because  of  its 
smooth  surface  it  is  not  likely  to  adhere  to  other  material 
or  absorb  moisture  readily  from  the  atmosphere.  When 
placed  in  water  or  damp  earth,  it  immediately  absorbs 
moisture.  It  is  necessary  for  the  kernel  to  absorb  mois- 
ture before  it  will  germinate. 

Equipment.  —  1.    Four  washpans. 

2.  A  balance  weighing  accurately  to  one  half  of  one  gram. 

3.  A  large  blotter. 

4.  A  small  sample  each  of  dent  corn,  sweet  corn,  wheat, 
and  beans. 

Directions.  —  Weigh  out  twenty-five  grams  each  of  dent 
corn,  sweet  corn,  wheat,  and  beans.  Place  each  sample  in 
a  washpan  and  pour  in  enough  water  to  submerge  the 
grain  completely.  Weigh  each  sample  after  it  has  soaked 
for  30  minutes,  1  hour,  2  hours,  1  day,  and  2  days,  respectively, 

151 


152  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

and  record  the  weights  on  the  accompanying  outline  form. 
Before  weighing,  drain  the  water  off  and  place  the  grain 
on  the  blotter  for  a  few  seconds  to  absorb  excess  moisture 
clinging  to  it.  After  each  weighing  replace  sample  in  wash- 
pan  and  again  submerge  in  water. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


153 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 

TABLE  FOR  RECORDING  THE  MOISTURE  ABSORBED  BY  DIFFERENT 

GRAINS 


KIND  OF  GRAIN 

1ST 

WEIGHT 

WEIGHT 

AFTER 

30  MIN. 

WEIGHT 

AFTER 

1  HB. 

WEIGHT 

AFTER 

2  I  Ins. 

WEIGHT 

AFTER 

1  DAY 

WEIGHT 

AFTER 

2  DAYS 

Dent  corn      .     . 

25  gms. 

Sweet  corn    .    . 

25  gms. 

Wheat  .... 

25  gms. 

Beans    .... 

25  gms. 

EXERCISE  38 
FACTORS  AFFECTING  THE  GERMINATION -OF  SEEDS 

Object.  —  To  study  the  factors  affecting  the  germination 
of  seeds. 

Explanation.  —  In  order  that  a  seed  may  grow  it  must  be 
supplied  with  the  proper  amount  of  moisture,  air,  and  heat. 
It  is  well  known  that  seeds  will  not  germinate  if  planted 
when  the  soil  is  too  cold.  The  proper  temperature  for 
seeds  to  grow  varies  with  the  seed  of  different  plants.  Some 
seed,  like  oats  and  clover,  will  germinate  when  the  soil  is  very 
cool,  while  other  seeds,  like  pumpkin  and  tomato,  require 
much  higher  temperatures  for  germinating.  A  temperature 
of  70°  to  80°  F.  is  sufficiently  high  to  germinate  the  seeds 
of  most  farm  crops. 

Seeds  will  not  germinate  unless  supplied  with  moisture 
in  proper  amounts.  If  the  soil  is  too  dry,  the  seeds  will  not 
germinate,  while  if  it  is  too  wet,  the  soil  is  often  too  cool  for 
germination  to  take  place.  Oxygen  or  air  is  also  necessary 
for  germination.  Seeds  will  not  germinate  well  when  the 
soil  is  badly  crusted  because  they  do  not  receive  sufficient 
air. 

Equipment.  —  1.    Six  washpans. 

2.  A  stick  with  blunt  end  for  compacting  the  soil. 

3.  Two  soils,  sand  and  clay. 

154 


FACTORS  AFFECTING  THE  GERMINATION  OF  SEEDS    155 

4.  One  hundred  and  twenty  kernels  of  corn  of  uniform 
size  and  known  to  be  of  strong  vitality. 

5.  Balances  weighing  to  one  half  gram. 

6.  Graduated  cylinder,  100  c.c. 

Directions.  —  Number  the  washpans  from  one  to  six. 
Put  into  the  first  three  pans  equal  amounts  by  weight  of  air- 
dry  sand  and  into  the  last  three  equal  amounts  by  weight 
of  air-dry  clay.  The  pans  should  be  about  two  thirds 
full. 

Add  water  slowly  by  measure  to  one  pan  containing  sand 
until  the  soil,  when  thoroughly  mixed,  appears  to  contain  the 
proper  moisture  content  for  the  best  growth  of  seeds.  Add 
the  same  quantity  of  water  to  the  second  and  third  pan, 
mixing  it  well  with  the  soil. 

In  the  same  way  determine  the  proper  amount  of  water 
to  add  to  the  clay  soil  for  the  best  growth  of  plants.  Make 
up  all  three  pans  containing  clay  to  the  same  moisture 
content. 

Smooth  the  surface  of  the  soil  in  all  the  pans  and  plant 
twenty  kernels  of  corn  in  each  pan.  Plant  the  kernels  at 
a  depth  of  one  inch. 

Treat  the  pans  as  follows  : 

1.  Sand.     No  treatment.     Set  in  a  warm  place  to  ger- 
minate. 

2.  Sand.     Thoroughly   saturate   with    water.     Set   in   a 
warm  place  to  germinate. 

3.  Sand.     No  treatment.     Place  where  the  temperature 
is  cool,  but  not  cold  enough  to  freeze. 

4.  Clay.     No  treatment.     Set  in  a  warm  place  to  ger- 
minate. 


156  LABORATORY  MANUAL   OF   AGRICULTURE 

5.  Clay.     Thoroughly  pack  the  surface  of  the  soil  by 
compacting.     Set  in  a  warm  place  to  germinate. 

6.  Clay.     Thoroughly  pack  the  surface  of  the  soil  by 
compacting  and  thoroughly  saturate  the  soil.     Set  hi  a  warm 
place  to  germinate. 

It  will  usually  be  sufficiently  warm  behind  the  stove  or 
in  the  furnace  room  of  the  school  building  to  maintain  the 
proper  temperature  for  germination. 

Pans  1, 3, 4,  and  5  should  be  watered  to  maintain  the  proper 
moisture  for  the  best  growth  of  the  seeds. 

Pans  2  and  6  should  be  wet  until  water  just  stands  on  the 
surface  and  should  be  maintained  in  this  condition  by  adding 
additional  water  each  day. 

Examine  the  pans  each  day  for  two  weeks  and  count  the 
number  of  seeds  that  have  germinated. 

Record  your  count  in  the  following  outline  form.  Dis- 
cuss fully  the  cause  for  the  difference  in  germination  observed. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


157 


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CONDITION  OF  SOIL 

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Wet.  Good  tempera- 
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Good  moisture.  Cold  . 

Good  moisture  and  tem- 

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i:>X  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE  39 


Object.  —  To  test  the  vitality  of  clover  or  grass  seed. 

Explanation.  —  There  are  many  factors  affecting  the 
quality  of  seed,  and  many  commercial  samples  of  clover 
and  grass  seed  are  low  in  vitality.  The  vitality  of  these 
seeds  is  more  easily  injured  than  the  vitality  of  the  seed  of 
the  common  "cereals.  It  is  essential,  therefore,  before  sowing 
clover  or  grass  seed  to  make  a  germination  test  to  determine 
its  vitality. 

In  making  germination  tests  the  seeds  should  be  kept 
moist  and  at  a  proper  growing  temperature.  The  most  fa- 
vorable temperature  differs  with  different  seeds.  The  clovers 
should  germinate  well  at  60°  to  80°  F. 

Equipment.  —  1.  A  pound  of  red  clover  seed. 

2.  Two  paper  plates  or  pieces  of  blotting  paper  for  each 
student. 

3.  A  pair  of  forceps  for  each  student. 

Directions.  —  Count  out  100  sound  seeds.  Place  them 
between  the  paper  plates  or  blotters,  and  moisten  well. 
Keep  at  a  temperature  of  60°  to  80°  F.  Examine  the  seed 
at  the  end  of  four  days.  Count  and  record  the  number  of 

159 


160  LABORATORY  MANUAL   OF  AGRICULTURE 

seeds  that  have  produced  sprouts.  Carefully  remove  the 
sprouted  seeds  so  that  they  will  not  interfere  with  later 
countings.  Count  and  remove  the  additional  seeds  that 
germinate  each  second  day  for  eight  days.  Record  data  in 
the  outline  form. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


161 


STUDENT'S   NOTES   AND    REPORT 
RECORD  OF  GERMINATION 


NAME  OF 
SAMPLE 

No.  OF 

SEEDU  IN 
SAMPLE 

NUMBER  OF  SEEDS  SPROUTED 

TOTAL  PER 
CENT  OF 
SEEDS 
SPROUTED 

4 
Days 

6 
Days 

8 
Days 

10 
Days 

12 
Days 

M 


EXERCISE  40 
A   STUDY   OF   GRASS    SEED 

Object.  —  To  study  the  purity  and  worth  of  grass  seed. 

Explanation.  —  The  perennial  grasses  include  such  grasses 
as  timothy,  Kentucky  bluegrass,  orchard  grass,  brome  grass, 
and  redtop.  The  seeds  of  different  kinds  of  perennial 
grasses  are  not  as  generally  known  as  are  the  seeds  of  cereal 
grains.  They  are  not  produced  in  such  large  quantities, 
commercial  samples  often  contain  seeds  of  other  grasses, 
weed  seeds,  and  foreign  matter,  and  their  vitality  is  often 
low  because  of  unfavorable  conditions  during  harvesting 
and  storing.  To  insure  good  results  hi  seeding  grasses  it 
is  essential  that  the  seed  be  free  from  other  seed  and  foreign 
matter,  and  that  its  vitality  be  reasonably  strong. 

Equipment.  —  1.  A  one-pound  sample  of  timothy  seed 
or  other  grass  such  as  has  been  named  under  explanation. 

2.  A  balance  weighing  to  one  tenth  of  one  gram. 

3.  A  pair  of  forceps. 

4.  A  hand  lens. 

5.  Type  sample  of  grasses. 

Directions.  —  Weigh  out  two  grams  of  grass  seed  from  the 
samples  and  make  a  detailed  study  of  it.  Use  the  outline 
form  "  A  Study  of  Grass  Seed  "  to  record  the  results  of  the 

162 


A  STUDY  OF  GRASS  SEED  163 

examination.  Record  the  name  of  the  grass  in  the  column 
of  that  sample  number  for  classification. 

Spread  the  sample  out  on  a  blank  piece  of  paper  and  make 
a  study  of  it  for  purity.  Separate  the  sample  into  the  follow- 
ing groups  :  grass  seed  true  to  name ;  seed  of  other  grasses ; 
weed  seeds ;  foreign  matter.  Weigh  each  group  and  record 
its  weight  and  per  cent  on  the  blank  form  in  the  column  for 
that  sample  number.  Weigh  accurately  to  one  tenth  of 
one  gram.  Quantities  less  than  one  tenth  of  one  gram 
may  be  indicated  as  "  trace."  All  the  groups  under  purity 
should  total  100  per  cent. 

Separate  from  the  sample  one  hundred  seeds  true  to 
name  and  make  a  germination  test  as  described  in  Ex. 
39.  Record  the  data  of  the  germination  test  in  Ex.  39. 
Record  the  per  cent  of  germination  on  the  blank  form. 
From  the  data  recorded  on  the  blank  form  compute  the  per 
cent  of  the  sample  that  will  grow  and  that  is  true  to  name. 


164 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF   AGRICULTURE 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 
A  STUDY  OF  GRASS  SEED 


CLASSIFICATION 

SAMPLE  NUMBER 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Wt. 

Per 

Cent 

Wt. 

Per 
Cent 

Wt. 

Per 

Cent 

Wt. 

Per 
Cent 

Seed  true  to  name  .     .     . 
Grass  seed  of  other  classes 
Weed  seeds     
Foreign  matter    .... 
Total      

loo" 

100 

100 

100 

Per  cent  of  germination    . 
Per  cent  of  seed  of  sample 
that  will  grow       .     .     . 

Date__  Student's  Name . 


EXERCISE   41 
A    STUDY    OF    ALFALFA    SEED 

Object.  —  To  study  the  purity  and  worth  of  alfalfa  seed. 

Explanation.  —  Alfalfa  is  more  likely  to  be  adulterated 
with  other  material  than  the  seed  of  cereals.  Very  often 
samples  of  alfalfa  contain  seed  of  obnoxious  weeds,  im- 
mature alfalfa  seed,  and  trash.  Such  samples  are  of  an 
inferior  quality,  and  the  man  who  procures  alfalfa  seed 
should  guard  against  such  impurities.  To  insure  good  re- 
sults in  seeding  alfalfa,  it  is  essential  that  the  seed  be  free 
from  other  seeds  and  foreign  matter  and  that  its  vitality 
be  reasonably  strong. 

Equipment.  —  1.  A  one-pound  sample  of  alfalfa  seed. 

2.  A  balance  weighing  to  one  tenth  of  one  gram. 

3.  A  pair  of  forceps. 

4.  A  hand  lens. 

Directions.  —  Weigh  out  two  grams  of  alfalfa  seed  from 
the  sample  and  make  a  detailed  study  of  it.  Use  the  out- 
line form  "A  Study  of  Alfalfa  Seed"  to  record  the  results 
of  the  examination.  Record  the  sample,  name,  and  source 
of  the  seed  at  the  top  of  the  vertical  column  for  classification. 

Spread  the  sample  out  on  a  blank  piece  of  paper  and  make 
a  study  of  it  for  purity.  Separate  the  sample  into  the  follow- 
ing groups :  sound  alfalfa  seed ;  broken  and  immature 
alfalfa  seed ;  seed  of  clover  and  grasses ;  weed  seeds ;  foreign 

165 


166  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

matter.  Weigh  each  group  and  record  its  weight  and  per 
cent  on  the  blank  form  in  the  column  for  that  sample  number. 
Weigh  accurately  to  one  tenth  of  one  gram.  Quantities 
less  than  one  tenth  of  one  gram  may  be  indicated  as  "  trace." 
All  the  groups  of  the  sample  should  total  100  per  cent. 

Separate  from  the  sample  one  hundred  sound  seeds  and 
make  a  germination  test  as  described  in  Ex.  39.  Record 
the  data  of  the  germination  test  in  Ex.  39.  Record  the  per 
cent  of  germination  on  the  blank  form.  From  the  data 
recorded  on  the  blank  form  compute  the  per  cent  of  the 
sample  that  will  grow  and  that  is  true  to  name. 


STUDENTS  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


167 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 
A  STUDY  OF  ALFALFA  SEED 


CLASSIFICATION 


SAMPLE  NUMBER 


WEIGHT 


PER 
CENT 


WEIGHT 


PER 
CENT 


Sound  alfalfa  seed 

Broken  and  immature  alfalfa  seed   .    .     . 

Seed  of  clover  and  grasses 

Weed  seeds 

Foreign  matter 

Per  cent  of  germination 

Per  cent  of  seed  of  sample  that  will  grow 


Date__  Student's  Name. 


EXERCISE  42 
A    STUDY    OF    THE    PLOW 

Object.  —  To  study  the  structure  of  the  plow  and  to  be- 
come familiar  with  the  different  parts  and  their  purpose. 

Explanation.  —  The  plow  is  the  most  generally  used  of 
all  farm  implements.  The  purpose  of  the  plow  is  to  invert 
and  pulverize  the  soil  and  to  turn  under  weeds  and  other 
vegetation.  Its  construction  is  not  complex,  and  when  prop- 
erly adjusted,  it  is  easy  to  operate.  If  improperly  adjusted, 
the  plow  is  often  difficult  to  operate,  and  it  does  an  inferior 
grade  of  work.  The  principal  parts  of  a  plow  are  the  share, 
landside,  and  the  moldboard. 

Equipment.  —  1.  A  walking  plow. 

2.  A  riding  plow. 

3.  A  three-foot  rule. 

4.  A  three-foot  tape. 

Directions.  —  Make  the  necessary  measurements  and  ob- 
servations to  answer  the  following  questions. 
Record  answers  in  the  following  outline  form  : 


168 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT  169 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 
Walking  Plow 

1.  Give  name  of  plow. 

2.  Give  the  manufacturer's  name. 

3.  Give  location  of  manufacturer. 

4.  Is  the  plow  a  stubble,  sod,  or  landside  plow  ? 

5.  Give  size  of  plow. 

6.  Measure  and  record  distance  from  point  of  share  to  center 
of  hitch. 

7.  Measure  and  record   distance  from  floor  to  highest  point 
under  beam.     (Clearance.) 

8.  Measure  and  record  distance  from  point  of  share  to  point 
on  plow  just  below  end  of  beam. 

9.  Measure  and  record  distance  that  the  end  of  beam  extends 
outside  of  the  line  of  the  landside. 

10.   Why  is  the  plow  made  with  the  end  of  the  beam  extending 
outside  of  the  line  of  the  landside  ? 


11.  Measure  and  record  the  suction  of  the  plow. 

12.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  suction  of  the  plow? 

13.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  high  polish  on  the  moldboard  ? 


170  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

14.   How  should  the  moldboard  be  protected  when  toot  in  use 
so  as  to  retain  this  high  polish  ? 


Riding  Plow 

1.  Give  the  name  of  plow. 

2.  Give  the  manufacturer's  name. 

3.  Give  location  of  manufacturer. 

4.  Is  the  plow  a  single  or  a  gang  plow? 

5.  Give  the  size  of  plow. 

6.  Is  the  plow  drawn  from  the  beam  or  the  frame  ? 

7.  Has  the  plow  a  foot  lift  ? 

8.  Have  the  wheels  hard  oilers  ? 

9.  Are  the  wheels  difficult  to  oil  ? 

10.  Place  a  straightedge  along  landside  and  measure  and  record 
distance  from  this  line  to  furrow  wheel. 

11.  Measure  and  record  the  height  of  hitch  above  plow  with 
plow  resting  on  the  floor. 


EXERCISE  43 

A    STUDY   OF  THE   GRAIN    GRADER  OR  FANNING 

MILL 

Object.  —  To  study  the  structure  of  the  grain  grader, 
and  test  its  efficiency  for  grading  grain  for  planting. 

Explanation.  —  Small  grain  as  it  comes  from  the  thresh- 
ing machine  is  usually  unfit  for  planting.  It  contains  small 
pieces  of  straw  and  chaff,  which  obstruct  the  grain  drill  in 
seeding,  and  make  uniform  seeding  impossible.  Besides 
straw  and  chaff,  grain  as  it  is  threshed  contains  broken, 
shriveled,  and  small  kernels.  This  material  is  unfit  for 
planting,  but  will  make  valuable  feed  if  separated  from  the 
seed  grain. 

It  is  estimated  that  twenty  per  cent  of  the  grain  as  it 
comes  from  the  thresher  is  unfit  for  planting,  but  suitable 
for  feeding.  By  using  the  grain  grader  in  preparing  grain 
for  seed,  a  more  uniform  stand  of  vigorous  plants  is 
obtained,  and  the  broken  and  small  kernels  may  be  saved 
for  feed. 

Apparatus.  —  1.   A  fanning  mill. 

2.  A  weight-per-bushel  tester. 

3.  One  bushel  of  uncleaned  wheat  as  it  comes  from  the 
thresher. 

171 


172  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

4.  Scales  weighing  one  hundred  pounds  or  more  and  weigh- 
ing accurately  to  one  half  pound. 

Directions.  —  Part  I.  Structure  of  Grain  Grader.  — 
Make  the  necessary  measurements  and  observations  to  an- 
swer the  following  questions.  Record  answers  in  the  outline 
form  on  the  following  page. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  173 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 

1.  Give  name  of  grader. 

2.  Give  the  manufacturer's  name. 

3.  Give  location  of  manufacturer. 

4.  Does  the  mill  depend  upon  specific  gravity  or  size  of  grain 
or  both  for  separation? 

5.  Does  the  grader  have  sieves  ? 

6.  Are  the  sieves  horizontal  or  sloping  ? 

7.  When  the  machine  is  in  motion,  do  the  sieves  move  verti- 
cally, horizontally,  or  lengthwise  with  the  machine  ? 

8.  Can  the  length  of  the  stroke  of  the  sieves  be  varied  ? 

9.  How  many  sieves  has  the  machine  ? 

i 
10.   Give  the  purpose  of  each  sieve. 


11.   Give  size  of  mesh  of  each  sieve  (the  number  of  holes  for 
inch  of  length) . 


12.  Does  the  grader  have  a  bagger  attachment  ? 

13.  What  is  the  rated  capacity  of  the  grader  ? 


174 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Part  II.  Test  of  Grain  Grader.  —  Weigh  out  sixty  pounds 
of  unclcancd  wheat.  Use  scales  for  weighing.  Determine 
weight  per  bushel  of  wheat  by  using  weight-per-bushel 
tester.  Adjust  the  grain  grader  properly  for  grading  wheat. 
Run  the  bushel  of  wheat  through  the  grader,  making  tlm  <• 
grades  if  possible.  Weigh  the  amount  of  wheat  in  first 
grade  and  determine  per  cent.  Determine  the  weight  per 
bushel  with  weight-per-bushel  tester.  Determine  per  cent 
and  weight  per  bushel  of  the  second  and  third  grades.  Ob- 
serve the  difference  in  quality  of  the  different  grades  of 
wheat. 

Record  data  in  the  following  outline : 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 
TABLE  SHOWING  WHEAT  AS  GRADED  BY  THE    GRAIN  GRADER 


WEIGHT 

PER  CENT  OF  SAMPLE 

WT.  PER  BUSHEL 

Bushel  sample 

60  pounds 

100% 

Best  grade 

. 

Second  grade  . 

Third  grade    . 

EXERCISE  44 
THE  CORN  GRADER 

Object.  —  To  study  the  construction  of  the  corn  grader 
and  test  its  efficiency  for  grading  corn. 

Explanation  —  Even  though  seed  corn  is  selected  with 
considerable  care,  the  ears  will  not  be  uniform  and  the  kernels 
will  not  be  of  the  same  shape  and  size  when  shelled.  It  is 
necessary  for  seed  corn  to  be  uniform  in  shape  and  size  for 
uniform  distribution  in  planting.  A  good  corn  grader  will 
remove  those  kernels  that  are  very  large,  very  small,  or  ir- 
regular in  shape. 

Equipment.  —  1.     A  corn  grader. 

2.  One  half  bushel  of  shelled  corn. 

3.  A  scale  weighing  one  hundred  pounds  or  more  and 
weighing  accurately  to  one  half  pound. 

Directions.  —  Part  I.  Structure  of  the  Grain  Grader.  — 
Make  the  necessary  measurements  and  observations  to 
answer  the  following  questions.  Record  answers  in  the 
following  outline  form : 


175 


176  LABORATORY  MANUAL   OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND    REPORT 
THE  CORN  QRADEB 

1.  Give  name  of  grader. 

2.  Give  manufacturer's  name. 

3.  Give  location  of  manufacturer. 

4.  How  is  the  corn  separated  into  different  grades  ? 

5.  Into  how  many  grades  is  the  corn  separated  ? 

6.  How  many  sieves  has  the  grader? 

7.  What  is  the  method  of  agitating  the  corn  on  the  sieve? 

8.  What  is  the  capacity  of  the  grader  ? 


THE  CORN  GRADER 


177 


Part  II.  Test  of  Corn  Grader.  —  Weigh  out  twenty- 
five  pounds  of  corn.  Adjust  the  grader  properly  for  grading 
corn.  Run  the  corn  through  the  grader  and  separate  into 
three  grades,  if  possible.  Weigh  the  amount  of  corn  in  the 
first  grade  and  determine  its  per  cent.  Weigh  and  determine 
the  per  cent  of  both  the  corn  that  is  too  large  and  the  corn 
that  is  too  small. 

Record  data  on  following  outline : 

TABLE  SHOWING  GRADE  OF  CORN  AS  SEPARATED  BY  THE  CORN 

GRADER 


WEIGHT 

PBB  CENT  OF  SAMPLE 

Entire  sample       .... 

25 

100 

First  grade       

Large  kernels  .     .     . 

Small  kernels        .... 

H 


EXERCISE  45 
THE    CORN    PLANTER 

Object.  —  To  study  the  structure  of  the  corn  planter,  and 
become  familiar  with  its  different  parts  and  their  purpose. 

Explanation.  —  The  corn  crop  is  the  most  valuable  crop 
grown  in  the  United  States.  More  acres  of  land  are  planted 
to  corn  in  the  Central  United  States  than  to  any  other  cul- 
tivated crop.  It  would  be  impossible  to  plant  this  vast 
acreage  of  corn  without  the  aid  of  the  corn  planter.  The 
corn  planter,  therefore,  is  absolutely  necessary  upon  nearly 
all  farms  in  the  corn  belt. 

Equipment.  —  1.    A  two-row  corn  planter. 

2.   A  one  hundred  foot  tape  line. 

Directions.  —  Make  the  necessary  observations  to  answer 
the  following  questions.  Record  the  answers  in  the  follow- 
ing outline  form. 


17- 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  179 

STUDENT'S   NOTES   AND    REPORT 
THE  CORN  PLANTER 

1.  Give  name  of  planter. 

2.  Give  the  manufacturer's  name. 

3.  Give  the  location  of  manufacturer. 

4.  What  kind  of  furrow  opener  has  the  planter  —  stub  or  curved 
runner,  single  or  double  disk  ? 

5.  What  kind  of  wheel  has  the  planter  —  open,  solid,  or  double  ? 

6.  Are  the  wheels  high  or  low  ? 

7.  Has  the  planter  a  drill  or  full  hill  drop  ? 

8.  Has  it  an  edge  selection  or  flat  plate  ? 

9.  Will  the  seed  box  tip  over  ? 

10.  How  many  valves  has  each  planter  shank  ? 

11.  Trace  the  path  of  the  corn  from  the  seed  box  to  the  ground. 


12.   What  is  the  object  of  the  upper  valve  ? 


180  LABORATORY  MANUAL   OF  AGRICULTURE 

13.  Of  the  lower  valve  ? 

14.  Does  the  lower  valve  counteract  the  speed  of  the  team  ? 

15.  Can  the  width  of  the  row  be  varied  ? 

16.  What  is  its  greatest  width  ? 

17.  What  is  its  least  width  ? 

18.  How  is  the  reel  attached  and  driven  ? 

19.  How  is  the  number  of  kernels  in  each  hill  determined  ? 

20.  Do  the  plates  rotate  continuously  in  accumulating  a  hill  ? 

21.  Do  the  plates  revolve  vertically  or  horizontally? 

22.  Has  the  planter  sight  feed  ? 

23.  Can  the  planter  be  arranged  to  drill  the  corn  ? 

24.  Adjust  the  planter  for  drilling  and  to  drop  one  kernel  every 
eighteen   inches.     After   properly   adjusting   the   planter  for   this 
rate  of  drop,  measure  off  a  stretch  of  one  hundred  feet  on  the  bare 
ground  and  pull  the  planter  over  this  distance  to  determine  the 
accuracy  of  drop. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT  181 

25.  If  you  were  to  buy  a  planter,  what  kind  would  you  buy? 
What  kind  of  wheels  and  furrow  openers  would  you  select?  Give 
fully  the  reasons  for  your  answer. 


EXERCISE  46 
ACCURACY   OF   DROP   OF   THE   CORN   PLANTER 

Object.  —  To  test  the  accuracy  with  which  the  corn 
planter  drops  the  kernels  of  corn. 

Explanation.  —  Nearly  every  corn  planter  is  equipped  both 
to  drill  the  corn  in  the  row  and  to  plant  it  in  the  hill. 
When  the  corn  planter  is  set  to  drill  the  corn  in  rows,  the  dis- 
tance apart  at  which  the  kernels  are  dropped  may  be  varied 
by  changing  the  plates  in  the  hopper  and  by  varying  the 
size  of  the  drive  wheel  that  governs  the  speed  of  the  planter 
plates.  When  planting  in  hills,  the  planter  may  be  adjusted 
in  the  same  way  to  drop  from  two  to  six  or  seven  kernels  in 
the  hill.  Since  the  yield  of  corn  on  a  given  area  of  ground 
is  greatly  influenced  by  the  stand  secured,  it  is  very  de- 
sirable to  use  a  planter  that  will  plant  accurately  at  the 
proper  rate.  Before  using  the  planter  in  the  field  it  should 
be  adjusted  to  plant  at  the  rate  desired  and  thoroughly 
tested  to  make  sure  that  it  is  planting  accurately. 

Equipment.  — 1.     A  two-row  corn  planter. 

2.   Four  quarts  of  shelled  corn. 

Directions.  —  Adjust  the  corn  planter  with  the  proper 
plates  to  drop  two  kernels  in  a  hill.  Place  a  few  handfuls 
of  corn  in  the  hopper.  Jack  up  the  planter  so  that  the  wheels 
turn  free  from  the  ground.  Run  the  planter  slowly  by  hand 

182 


ACCURACY  OF  DROP  OF  THE  CORN  PLANTER    183 

and  count  the  number  of  kernels  dropped  in  each  hill  until 
one  hundred  hills  have  been  dropped. 

Record  in  the  accompanying  outline  form  the  number  of 
hills  in  which  no  kernels  were  dropped,  one  kernel,  two  ker- 
nels, three  kernels,  four  kernels,  five  or  more  kernels. 

Repeat  the  count  for  another  hundred  hills  and  record 
results  as  before. 

Adjust  the  corn  planter  to  drop  three  kernels  in  a  hill. 
In  the  same  manner  as  before  count  the  number  of  kernels 
dropped  in  each  hill  until  one  hundred  hills  have  been 
dropped. 

Record  in  the  outline  form  the  number  of  hills  in  which 
no  kernel  was  dropped,  one  kernel,  two  kernels,  three  ker- 
nels, four  kernels,  five  or  more  kernels.  Repeat  the  count 
for  another  hundred  hills  and  record  the  results  as  before. 


184 


LABORATORY   MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 
ACCURACY  OP  DROP  OF  CORN  PLANTER 


HILLS  RECEIVING  THE 
FOLLOWING  KERNELS 

ADJUSTMENT  or  PLANTER 

To  DROP  2  KERNELS 

To  DROP  3  KERNELS 

1st 
Count 

2d 

Count 

Average 

lat 
Count 

2d 
Count 

Average 

No  kernels  .     .     . 

One  kernel  .     .     . 

Two  kernels     .     . 

Three  kernels  .     . 

Four  kernels    .     . 

Five  or  more  ker- 
nels    .... 

EXERCISE  47 
TREATMENT    OF    SEED    OATS    FOR    SMUT 

Object.  —  To  demonstrate  a  practical  method  of  treating 
seed  oats  for  smut. 

Explanation.  —  Smut  in  grain  is  caused  by  a  parasitic 
plant  growing  through  the  tissue  of  the  grain  plant.  Smut 
usually  appears  as  a  black,  powdery  mass  of  spores,  and 
may  destroy  the  entire  head  of  grain.  Smut  is  produced 
from  smut  spores  as  other  plants  are  produced  from  seeds. 
Smut  frequently  appears  in  oats  and  often  greatly  reduces 
the  yield. 

A  solution  made  of  one  pint  of  formaldehyde  added  to 
fifty  gallons  of  water  is  effective  in  treating  oat  smut. 

The  smut  spores  become  ripe  soon  after  the  oats  head  out 
and  are  then  blown  about  through  the  field  by  the  wind. 
Many  of  the  smut  spores  cling  to  other  heads  and  kernels. 
When  the  seed  is  planted  the  next  year,  the  fungus  grows 
up  within  the  young  seedling.  At  flowering  time  the  smut 
becomes  visible  and  the  head  develops  into  a  mass  of  smut 
spores. 

Equipment.  —  1.  One  half  bushel  of  oats. 

2.  50  c.c.  of  40  per  cent  solution  of  formaldehyde. 

3.  A  four-gallon  crock. 

185 


186  LABORATORY   MANUAL  OF   AGRICULTURE 

4.  Paper  plates  or  blotters  for  making  germination  test. 

5.  A  cotton  sack. 

Directions.  —  Reserve  twenty  grams  of  the  sample  for 
study  and  germination  test.  Pour  four  liters  of  water  into 
the  crock.  Add  to  the  water  30  c.c.  of  the  formaldehyde 
solution.  Put  four  pounds  of  oats  into  a  cotton  sack  large 
enough  to  hold  ten  pounds,  and  submerge  it  in  the  prepared 
solution.  Move  the  sack  around  in  the  solution  so  that  all 
the  grain  may  become  thoroughly  wet.  Remove  after  thirty 
seconds.  Empty  the  sack  and  spread  the  grain  out  on  a 
clean  surface  to  dry.  Submerge  another  four-pound  sample 
in  a  similar  manner  and  remove  after  two  minutes.  Spread 
it  out  on  a  clean  surface  to  dry.  Submerge  a  third  four- 
pound  sample  for  five  minutes  and  place  it  out  to  dry.  Make 
a  germination  test  of  the  untreated  sample  and  each  of  the 
treated  samples.  Use  one  hundred  grains  of  each  for  the 
germination  test  as  shown  in  Ex.  39.  Record  the  vitality 
of  each  sample  on  the  outline  form.  Seed  oats  should  be 
thoroughly  treated,  but  not  left  in  the  solution  long  enough 
to  injure  their  vitality. 


TREATMENT 

VITALITY 

°/ 

/o 

Submerged  30  seconds 


Submerged  2  minutes    .... 

Of 

Submerged  5  minutes    

°7 

After  oats  are  treated  for  smut  they  should  not  be  put  in 
bins  or  sacks  that  have  smut  in  them. 


TREATMENT  OF  SEED  OATS  FOR  SMUT  187 

The  loose  smut  of  oats,  the  stinking  smut  of  wheat,  the 
covered  smut  of  barley,  and  the  sorghum  grain  smut  may  all 
be  treated  effectively  in  a  similar  manner.  The  loose  smut 
of  wheat  cannot  be  successfully  combated  by  the  above 
treatment. 


188  LABORATORY  MANUAL   OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


EXERCISE  48 
THE    IRISH  POTATO 

Object.  —  To  become  familiar  with  the  structure  of  the 
potato  and  to  determine  the  qualities  that  affect  its  value. 

Explanation.  —  The  potato  is  an  underground  enlarge- 
ment of  the  potato  plant.  It  is  commonly  called  a  tuber. 
The  tuber  serves  as  a  means  of  storing  reserve  plant  food  to  be 
used  later  in  the  development  of  new  plants.  The  eye  of  the 
potato  is  a  dormant  bud  from  which  the  new  plant  develops. 
The  interior  of  the  potato  is  filled  with  starch  and  serves 
as  food  for  the  new  plant.  The  potato  is  used  as  one  of  the 
principal  foods  of  man.  Its  value  for  food  is  affected  by 
its  freedom  from  injury  and  disease,  smoothness,  depth  of 
eyes,  and  size.  A  good  potato  should  be  smooth,  free  from 
disease,  of  medium  size,  and  have  medium  shallow  eyes. 

Equipment.  —  1.  Twenty  pounds  of  potatoes  of  various 
shapes  and  sizes,  and  if  possible  of  different  varieties. 

2.  Balance  weighing  to  one  half  of  one  gram. 

3.  A  paring  knife. 

Directions.  —  Weigh  out  fifteen  pounds  of  potatoes  and 
make  a  detailed  study  of  them.  Use  the  outline  form  "A 
Study  of  the  Potato "  to  record  the  results  of  the  examina- 
tion. 

Shape.  —  Make  a  study  of  the  shape  of  the  potatoes  by 

189 


190  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

separating  the  sample  into  the  following  classes:  round, 
cylindrical,  oval,  flat  oval.  Count  and  record  the  number 
of  potatoes  in  each  group. 

Size.  —  Separate  the  potatoes  into  groups  of  large,  me- 
dium, and  small  size.  Count  and  record  the  number  in 
each  group. 

Color  of  Skin.  —  Separate  the  potatoes  into  the  following 
groups :  yellowish,  white,  pink,  russet,  red,  and  other  colors. 
Count  and  record  the  number  of  potatoes  in  each  group. 

Texture  of  Skin.  —  Separate  the  sample  into  the  following 
groups  based  upon  the  texture  of  the  skin:  corky,  netted, 
medium  smooth,  very  smooth.  Count  and  record  the  num- 
ber in  each  group. 

Depth  of  Eyes.  —  Separate  the  sample  into  the  following 
groups,  based  upon  depth  of  eyes:  deep,  medium,  and 
shallow.  Count  and  record  the  number  in  each  group. 

Condition.  —  Make  a  study  of  condition  by  separating 
the  sample  of  potatoes  into  the  following  groups:  clean, 
broken  or  cracked,  and  diseased.  Count  and  record  the 
number  of  potatoes  in  each  group. 

Select  from  the  sample  five  large,  five  small,  and  five  very 
rough  and  knotty  potatoes.  Weigh  each  group  of  five  sep- 
arately and  record  weight.  Peel  the  potatoes  in  each  group, 
removing  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  thickness  of  peeling 
in  each  case.  Weigh,  and  record  the  weight  of  the  peeled 
potatoes  of  each  group.  Subtract  these  weights  from  the 
first  weights  to  determine  the  weight  of  peeling  in  each  group. 
Determine  the  per  cent  of  waste  in  each  group. 

Record  the  data  in  the  accompanying  outline  form. 


191 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 
A  STUDY  OF  THE  IRISH  POTATO 


SAMPLE 

DUMBER 

1 

2 

Cylindrical  

Shape  .... 

Oval    

Flat  oval      

Size     .          .     . 

Small  

Yellowish  white     .... 

Pink    

Color  of  skin    . 

Red     

[  Corky  

Netted     

Texture  of  skin 

Medium  smooth    .... 

Very  smooth     

Deep   

Depth  of  eyes  . 

Medium  

f  Clean  

Condition     .    . 

Cracked  or  broken 

Diseased  

Date__  Student's  name. 


192  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


GROUP  No. 

WEIGHT  or 
WHOLE 
POTATOES 

WEIGHT  or 
PEELED 
POTATOES 

WEIGHT  OF 

I'M.  MM; 

PER  CENT 
or  WASTE 

Large  potatoes      .     . 

Small  potatoes  .     .     . 

Rough  potatoes     .     . 

EXERCISES  49  AND  50 
PLANNING    THE    HOME   GARDEN 

Object.  —  To  plan  the  arrangement  and  succession  of 
crops  in  the  home  garden. 

Explanation.  —  It  is  practically  impossible  for  the  farmer 
to  have  fresh  vegetables  during  the  summer  unless  he  pro- 
duces them  in  his  own  garden.  There  should  be  a  small  plot 
of  ground  set  aside  on  every  farm  for  the  home  garden.  A 
garden  well  planned  and  growing  a  succession  of  vegetable 
crops  will  be  a  great  convenience  in  furnishing  fresh  vege- 
tables in  the  summer  time.  The  home  garden  should  afford 
pleasure  and  reduce  the  cost  of  living  expenses. 

The  garden  should  be  large  enough  to  make  cultivation 
with  horses  possible.  The  rows  will  have  to  be  further  apart 
and  more  ground  will  be  needed  for  the  same  amount  of  crops, 
but  much  hand  labor  will  be  saved.  A  home  garden  might 
well  occupy  a  space  of  one  half  to  one  acre  of  land.  Where 
this  much  space  is  not  available  the  rows  may  be  placed 
closer  together,  and  hand  cultivation  resorted  to.  The 
site  for  the  garden  should  be  conveniently  arranged  close  to 
the  house,  on  a  plot  of  land  of  good  texture  and  fertility. 

It  is  advisable  to  apply  a  dressing  of  well-rotted  manure  to 
the  garden  each  year.  Cultivation  should  be  frequent  to 
prevent  the  growth  of  weeds. 

o  193 


194  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Garden  crops  are  more  valuable  than  field  crops  consider- 
ing the  space  they  occupy,  and  the  grower  can  afford  to  give 
them  more  cultivation. 

The  garden  should  be  fenced  with  a  woven  wire  fence  to 
protect  it  from  rabbits,  chickens,  and  "  live  stock." 

The  home  garden  may  include  annual  and  perennial  vege- 
table crops  and  small  fruit  crops.  The  following  are  some  of 
the  annual  crops  that  may  be  grown  successfully :  radishes, 
lettuce,  peas,  beans,  onions,  carrots,  parsley,  turnips,  toma- 
toes, cabbage,  sweet  corn,  celery,  and  cucumbers.  Radishes, 
lettuce,  peas,  and  beans  are  often  ready  for  use  in  early 
summer,  and  the  space  they  occupied  may  be  reseeded  with 
other  vegetables,  as  cucumbers,  celery,  and  turnips. 

Perennial  plants,  such  as  horseradish,  rhubarb,  asparagus, 
blackberries,  raspberries,  currants,  and  grapes,  may  well  oc- 
cupy a  permanent  place  in  the  garden.  If  the  entire  garden 
is  not  occupied  by  the  above  crops,  the  remainder  of  it  may 
well  be  planted  with  more  sweet  corn  and  potatoes. 

Directions.  —  Take  the  measurements  of  your  home  gar- 
den. Plan  what  portion  of  it  should  be  devoted  to  each  of 
the  crops  given.  Figure  the  area  to  be  occupied  by  each  crop. 
If  the  garden  is  not  already  properly  planned,  make  such 
changes  as  you  think  advisable.  Draw  a  plan  for  the 
garden  and  show  where  all  the  crops  are  to  be  located. 
Estimate  the  amount  of  seed  needed  for  each  crop.  Go  to 
your  seed  dealer  and  ascertain  the  price  required  to  purchase 
the  seed.  Give  the  quantity  and  approximate  cost  of  each 
kind  of  seed  to  be  used  in  the  garden. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  195 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


196  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


EXERCISE  51 
PRUNING 

Object.  —  To  study  methods  of  pruning,  and  the  benefits 
derived  from  removing  undesirable  branches  from  trees. 

Explanation.  —  It  is  often  necessary  to  remove  branches 
from  trees  in  order  to  promote  their  best  development. 
There  are  two  important  objects  to  be  secured  by  pruning. 
One  is  to  beautify  the  tree  by  giving  it  a  better  shape ;  the 
other  is  to  make  it  more  fruitful  or  increase  its  vigor.  Prun- 
ing may  be  performed  at  various  times  during  the  year, 
and  the  best  time  depends  largely  upon  the  purpose  for 
which  it  is  done.  Pruning  in  the  winter  tends  to  promote 
growth  of  wood,  while  pruning  during  the  growing  season 
tends  to  promote  the  production  of  fruit  buds.  It  is  usually 
well  to  prune  orchard  trees  late  in  the  winter  or  early  in  the 
spring  while  they  are  in  dormant  condition.  Pruning  may 
be  done  successfully  almost  any  time  of  year  except  when 
the  buds  are  starting.  Pruning  is  a  means  of  thinning  out 
undesirable  branches.  Very  severe  pruning  tends  toward  the 
production  of  a  new  growth  of  wood  and  a  light  production 
of  fruit.  For  the  best  results  an  orchard  should  be  pruned 
a  little  every  year.  When  a  limb  is  cut  off,  it  should  be  re- 
moved as  near  its  main  branch  as  possible,  and  parallel  to  it. 
The  wound  will  heal  much  more  rapidly  if  the  limb  is  re- 

197 


198  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

moved  close  to  the  main  branch  than  if  the  stub  is  left 
longer.  The  healing  of  the  wound  takes  place  at  the  cam- 
bium layer.  The  hard  wood  itself  at  the  center  of  the  limb 
never  heals,  but  is  partly  covered  over  by  the  growth  of 
the  cambium  layer.  When  large  limbs  are  removed,  the 
wound  is  often  covered  with  paint  to  protect  it  during  the 
process  of  healing. 

Equipment.  —  1.  Pruning  shears. 

2.  Pruning  saw. 

3.  Pruning  knife. 

Directions.  —  Go  to  a  near-by  orchard  of  mature  apple 
trees.  Other  fruit  trees  may  be  chosen,  or  even  forest  trees 
may  answer  the  purpose  if  orchard  trees  are  not  accessible. 
Select  a  tree  in  need  of  pruning.  Remove  all  broken,  injured, 
or  diseased  limbs.  Remove  limbs  that  are  likely  to  rub  or 
injure  other  portions  of  the  tree.  Remove  all  water  sprouts. 
Remove  a  sufficient  number  of  the  least  desirable  limbs  so 
that  the  light  may  penetrate  to  the  center  of  the  tree. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  199 

STUDENT'S   NOTES   AND    REPORT 


EXERCISES  52  AND  53 
THE    BABCOCK   TEST1 

Object.  —  To  determine  the  per  cent  of  butter  fat  in  milk. 

Explanation.  —  The  value  of  a  cow  as  a  milk  producer  de- 
pends not  only  on  the  quantity  of  milk  produced,  but  also  on 
the  per  cent  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk.  The  amount  of  butter 
fat  in  milk  may  be  determined  by  the  Babcock  test. 

Equipment.  —  1.  One  or  more  pint  samples  of  milk. 

2.  A  Babcock  testing  outfit. 

Directions.  —  Bring  the  acid  and  milk  to  be  used  to  a  tem- 
perature of  70°  F.  This  can  best  be  done  by  placing  them 
in  the  hot-water  bath.  Mix  the  milk  thoroughly  by  pouring 
it  from  one  vessel  to  another  no  less  than  five  times. 

Take  pipette  between  thumb  and  second  and  third  fingers, 
leaving  the  index  finger  free,  draw  milk  into  pipette  immedi- 
ately after  stirring  and  place  index  finger  over  the  tip  of 
pipette ;  now  release  the  finger  very  slightly  until  top  of  the 
milk  column  is  even  with  the  mark  of  the  pipette. 

Hold  the  milk  bottle  on  a  slant  and  place  the  end  of  the 
pipette  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  leaving  an  opening  for  air  so 
that  air  bubbles  cannot  form  and  throw  milk  out  of  the  neck ; 

1  Adapted  from  O.  E.  Reed  in  the  Dairy  Primer,  Chapters  in 
Elements  of  Agriculture,  Extension  Department,  Kansas  State 
Agricultural  College. 

200 


THE  BABCOCK  TEST  201 

then  release  finger  and  allow  the  milk  to  flow  into  the  bottle, 
blowing  the  last  drop  from  the  pipette.  A  second  sample  of 
the  milk  should  be  taken  in  the  same  way  as  a  duplicate. 

Fill  acid  measure  to  the  mark  (never  draw  acid  into  pipette) . 
The  acid  is  very  strong  and  should  be  handled  with  the  great- 
est caution.  Water  should  be  at  hand  to  remove  quickly  any 
acid  coming  in  contact  with  the  hands  or  other  parts  of  the 
body.  Take  the  milk  bottle  by  the  neck  between  thumb  and 
fingers  of  the  left  hand  so  that  the  bottle  can  be  turned ; 
now  bring  the  lip  of  the  acid  measure  to  the  mouth  of  the 
bottle  and  pour  the  acid  into  the  bottle  so  that  all  of  the 
milk  will  be  washed  from  the  neck  into  the  bottle.  Hold  the 
bottle  at  a  slant  while  doing  this  so  that  the  acid  will  not  fall 
directly  on  the  milk  and  form  pieces  of  charred  curd. 

Give  the  bottle  a  rotary  motion  in  order  to  cause  a  gradual 
mixture  of  milk  and  acid;  sudden  mixing  will  cause  large 
amounts  of  heat  and  gas  and  will  throw  the  material  out  of 
the  bottle. 

After  the  bottle  has  been  stirred  thoroughly  and  the  curd 
is  dissolved,  place  the  bottle  in  the  Babcock  tester  and  whirl 
five  minutes. 

Place  the  bottles  in  the  water  bath  of  180°  F.  for  five 
minutes  and  fill  with  hot  water  to  the  neck. 

Whirl  for  two  minutes. 

Place  in  water  bath  for  five  minutes  and  fill  with  hot  water 
to  within  one  half  inch  of  the  top  of  the  bottle. 

Whirl  for  two  minutes. 

Place  in  water  bath,  130°  F.,  for  five  minutes. 

Measure  the  fat  column  by  placing  one  point  of  the  dividers 
at  the  bottom  and  the  other  at  the  top,  then  keeping  dividers 


202  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

at  this  spread,  place  one  point  on  the  zero  mark  and  note 
where  the  other  point  falls  on  the  scale.  The  reading  on 
the  scale  at  this  point  indicates  the  per  cent  of  butter  fat 
in  the  milk.  Record  the  per  cent  of  butter  fat  of  both  the 
first  and  second  determinations.  Additional  tests  should  be 
made  as  time  will  permit. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT  203 

STUDENT'S   NOTES  AND   REPORT 


204  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE  54 
MIXING    SPRAY   MATERIALS 

Object.  —  To  prepare  Bordeaux  mixture  for  spraying 
apples. 

Explanation.  —  Apple  trees  are  sprayed  to  destroy  fungi  or 
insects  which  may  injure  or  completely  destroy  the  crop  if 
their  growth  and  development  are  not  checked.  In  order 
that  spraying  may  be  effective  it  is  necessary  to  apply  a  sub- 
stance that  will  destroy  the  fungi  or  insects  without  injury 
to  the  apple  tree  or  fruit. 

The  spray  material  known  as  Bordeaux  mixture  has  been 
found  to  be  effective  in  destroying  fungi  such  as  apple  scab, 
apple  blotch,  and  bitter  rot,  usually  without  injury  to 
the  tree  or  fruit.  Lime  sulphur,  another  spray  material,  is 
less  likely  to  injure  some  varieties  of  apples,  but  does  not 
effectively  destroy  the  apple  blotch.  Where  the  apple  blotch 
is  not  present,  lime  sulphur  may  be  used  instead  of  Bordeaux 
mixture.  Lead  arsenate  is  effective  in  controlling  the  cod- 
ling moth,  one  of  the  insects  most  destructive  to  the  apple 
crop.  A  strong  solution  of  lead  arsenate  will  destroy  the 
cankerworm  and  other  insects  that  feed  upon  the  foliage 
and  fruit.  A  strong  solution  of  lime  sulphur  is  used  to  com- 
bat the  San  Jose*  scale. 

A  common  formula  for  making  Bordeaux  mixture  is : 

205 


206  LABORATORY   MANUAL  OF   AGRICULTURE 

Three  pounds  of  copper  sulphate. 

Four  pounds  of  fresh  lime. 

Fifty  gallons  of  water. 

The  proportion  of  lime  is  sometimes  increased  if  there  is 
danger  of  spray  burn.  The  lime  is  slacked  by  pouring  water 
over  it,  and  the  copper  sulphate  is  dissolved  in  water.  Both 
the  copper  sulphate  solution  and  the  lime  solution  should  be 
diluted  to  twenty-five  gallons  and  then  poured  together. 
The  entire  solution  should  be  poured  through  a  strainer  to 
remove  coarse  material. 

Lime  sulphur  can  be  purchased  on  the  market  as  such. 
Commercial  brands  usually  test  32°  or  33°  Baume".  Material 
of  this  strength  should  be  diluted  about  thirty  to  thirty- 
five  times  with  water  before  using  on  trees  that  are  in 
leaf. 

Lead  arsenate  spray  may  be  prepared*  by  dissolving  two  to 
four  pounds  of  lead  arsenate  in  fifty  gallons  of  spray  material. 
Lead  arsenate  may  be  used  in  the  same  spray  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  or  lime  sulphur.  Spray  burn  sometimes  results 
from  the  use  of  Bordeaux  mixture  in  wet  weather,  and  from 
the  use  of  lime  sulphur  in  dry  weather.  When  both 
sprays  are  used  together,  one  application  will  be  effective 
in  combating  both  the  codling  moth  and  fungous  diseases. 
Spraying  must  be  done  at  various  periods  to  protect  the 
apple  crop  successfully. 

Equipment.  —  1.  Thirty  grams  of  copper  sulphate. 

2.  Fifty  grams  of  fresh  lime. 

3.  Two  two-gallon  crocks. 

4.  One  four-gallon  crock. 

5.  Ten  grams  of  potassium  ferrocyanide. 


MIXING  SPRAY  MATERIALS  207 

.    6.   Graduated  cylinder,  100  c.c. 

7.   Balance  weighing  to  one  half  gram. 

Directions.  —  Dissolve  thirty  grams  of  copper  sulphate  in 
two  liters  of  water,  in  a  two-gallon  crock.  Slack  forty  grams 
of  fresh  lime  by  pouring  water  over  it  and  mixing.  Pour  in 
water  to  bring  the  solution  up  to  two  liters.  Pour  the  two 
solutions  together  into  the  large  crock.  The  resulting  solu- 
tion is  the  Bordeaux  mixture. 

The  Bordeaux  mixture  should  be  alkaline  in  reaction. 
Dissolve  the  ten  grams  of  potassium  ferrocyanide  in  50  c.c.  of 
water.  Pour  a  drop  of  potassium  ferrocyanide  solution  into 
the  spray  material.  If  it  turns  brown  on  striking  the  liquid, 
the  reaction  is  acid,  and  more  limewater  must  be  added  to 
make  it  alkaline.  If  the  reaction  is  acid,  add  50  c.c.  of  lime- 
water  and  test  again  with  a  drop  of  potassium  ferrocyanide 
solution.  Continue  adding  limewater  and  testing  until  the 
solution  no  longer  gives  the  brown  color  when  potassium 
ferrocyanide  is  added. 


L'OS  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE  55 
GRAFTING 

Object. — To  study  the  principal  simple  methods  of  grafting. 

Explanation.  —  Grafting  is  the  operation  of  inserting  a 
small  branch  or  twig  (called  a  cion)  into  an  incision  of  another 
branch  (called  the  stock).  The  cion  must  bear  one  or  more 
buds,  and  its  cambium  layer  must  be  placed  next  to  the  cam- 
bium layer  of  the  stock  so  that  the  wood  of  the  two  may 
unite  and  grow.  The  main  object  of  grafting  is  to  propagate 
plants  that  do  not  readily  reproduce  themselves  in  desired 
forms  from  the  seed.  There  are  several  methods  of  grafting. 
Two  important  ones  are  root  and  top  grafting.  Root  grafting 
is  practiced  with  apples  in  starting  young  trees.  The  fruit 
produced  from  a  seedling  apple  tree  is  uncertain  in  kind  and 
value.  One-year-old  seedlings  are  used  for  the  root  stock. 
Twigs  of  the  previous  summer's  growth  taken  from  good 
apple  trees  are  used  for  the  cions.  Top  grafting  is  employed 
to  change  the  character  of  fruit  of  an  older  tree  by  replacing 
the  branches  of  the  tree  with  small  twigs  of  a  desirable  variety. 

Equipment.  —  1.  Grafting  knife.  2.   Saw. 

3.   Grafting  wax.1       4.   Ten  one-year-old  apple  seedlings.2 

1  Grafting  wax  may  be  made  by  melting  together  four  parts,  by 
weight,  of  resin,  two  parts  of  beeswax,  and  one  part  of  tallow.    When 
thoroughly  melted,  pour  the  mixture  into  a  pail  of  cold  water.    After 
it  hardens  it  should  be  pulled  and  worked  until  it  becomes  tough. 
The  hands  should  be  greased  with  tallow  when  handling  grafting  wax. 

2  Apple  seedlings  may  be  secured  from  nurseries  in  lots  of  one 
hundred. 

P  209 


210 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


FIG.  12.  —  Root  grafting.  A,  cion 
shaped  ready  for  insertion  ;  B,  por- 
tion of  seedling  root  shaped  to 
receive  the  cion ;  C,  the  cion  and 
portion  of  root  put  together; 
D,  the  same  as  C,  wrapped  with 
grafting  paper.  (After  Goff.) 


FIG.  13.  —  Cleft-grafting.  A,  cion 
shaped  ready  for  insertion  in 
cleft  (after  Bailey)  ;  B,  cions  in- 
serted in  cleft  ready  for  waxing. 
(After  Goff.) 


GRAFTING  211 

Directions  for  Root  Grafting.  —  Select  a  proper  root  stock 
and  cion  for  grafting.  Cut  both  the  stock  and  the  cion  across 
diagonally,  so  that  the  cut  surface  will  extend  from  one  to 
two  inches.  Make  a  vertical  &lit  in  each  cut  surface  and  press 
the  tongue  of  the  cion  into  the  cleft  of  the  stock.  (See  illus- 
tration.) Wrap  the  graft  firmly  with  a  bandage  and  apply 
grafting  wax  over  the  bandage  for  protection. 

Directions  for  Top  Grafting.  —  Select  an  apple  tree  which 
is  barren  or  produces  an  inferior  variety  of  apples.  Remove 
with  a  saw  a  branch  that  is  one  half  inch  to  one  inch  in 
diameter.  Make  a  split  down  the  center  of  the  stock.  Pre- 
pare two  cions  four  to  five  inches  in  length  and  wedge- 
shaped  at  the  base.  Place  the  cions  in  the  split,  one  on 
each  side,  so  that  the  cambium  layer  of  the  outside  of 
each  cion  comes  into  exact  contact  with  the  cambium  layer 
of  the  stock.  Cover  all  the  wounds  carefully  with  grafting 
wax. 


212  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISES  56  AND    57 
GERMINATION    TEST    OF    SEED    CORN 

Object.  —  To  test  the  vitality  of  seed  corn. 

Explanation.  —  If  the  field  of  corn  examined  in  Exercise  2 
shows  a  poor  stand,  the  largest  possible  yield  was  not 
secured.  A  poor  stand  of  corn  may  be  due  to  a  poorly 
prepared  seed  bed,  but  is  very  often  due  to  the  low  vitality 
of  the  seed  corn.  Early  in  the  winter  corn  usually  contains 
an  abnormally  high  per  cent  of  moisture.  If  a  severe  freeze 
occurs  while  it  is  in  this  condition,  the  vitality  is  likely  to  be 
impaired  or  destroyed.  If  seed  corn  contains  a  high  per 
cent  of  moisture  at  husking  time,  it  should  be  properly 
dried  out  to  keep  it  from  molding,  and  placed  under  shelter 
to  keep  if  from  freezing. 

A  man  experienced  in  corn  selection  may  be  able  to  deter- 
mine with  some  accuracy  by  inspection  whether  or  not  corn 
will  grow.  But  often  an  ear  that  will  not  grow  has  no  out- 
ward indication  of  reduced  vitality.  It  is  impossible  to 
determine  definitely  which  ears  of  corn  will  not  grow  without 
making  a  germination  test. 

Equipment.  —  1.   One  hundred  ears  of  corn. 

2.  A  germination  tester  or  box  as  shown  in  Fig.  14. 

3.  Sand. 

Directions.  —  Lay  the  ears  of  corn  that  are  to  be  tested 
in  a  long  row,  side  by  side,  where  they  will  be  undisturbed 

213 


214  LABORATORY   MANUAL   OF   AGRICULTURE 


«  a  MM 


GERMINATION  TEST  OF  SEED  CORN        215 

until  after  the  test  is  completed.  Number  the  ears  from  one 
to  one  hundred.  Commencing  at  the  left  end  of  the  row, 
remove  six  kernels  from  each  ear  —  two  near  the  butt,  two 
near  the  middle,  and  two  near  the  tip.  These  kernels  may 
be  pulled  out  with  the  aid  of  a  penknife  and  without  injury 
to  the  kernels.  Place  the  six  kernels  from  ear  No.  1 
in  the  sand  of  the  germinator  tip  downward  in  square  No.  1. 
Place  the  six  kernels  from  ear  No.  2  in  square  No.  2  in  a 
similar  manner.  Place  the  kernels  from  all  other  ears  which 
are  to  be  tested  in  a  like  manner  in  the  germinating  tester  in 
squares  assigned  to  them.  Keep  the  germinating  tester 
moist  and  at  a  temperature  of  from  70°  to  85°  F.  In  five 
or  six  days  the  test  should  be  complete.  If  the  temperature 
has  been  below  70°  F.  much  of  the  time,  a  longer  period 
for  the  test  will  be  required.  Remove  the  kernels  from  the 
tester  and  count  the  number  that  germinated  from  each  ear. 
Record  on  the  squares  of  the  diagram  on  the  next  page  the 
number  of  kernels  that  germinated  from  each  ear. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  per  cent  of  ears  shows  perfect  germination? 

2.  What  per  cent  of  the  kernels  tested  shows  perfect  germination? 

3.  How  many  acres  of  corn  will  one  hundred  ears  plant  after 
the  ears  have  been  tipped,  butted,  and  graded,  assuming  that  one 
fourth  of  each  ear  is  rejected  for  seed,  if  the  rows  are  planted  forty- 
two  inches  apart  and  the  kernels  twenty-one  inches  apart  in  the 
row?     (Use  figures  determined  in  Ex.  20  for  size  of  ear.) 

4.  How  many  ears  are  necessary  to  plant  sixty  acres  of  corn? 

5.  How  many  bushels  are  necessary  to  plant  sixty  acres  of  corn, 
counting  seventy  pounds  of  ear  corn  to  the  bushel? 

6.  How  much  time  is  actually  required  to  perform  the  work  of 
the  germination  test  for  one  hundred  ears  ? 

7.  How  much  time  is  required  to  perform  the  work  of  the  ger- 
mination test  for  sixty  acres  ? 


216 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 
DIAGRAM  OF  SQUARES  SHOWING  RECORD  OF  GERMINATION 

Number  of  tester. ___ 

Date  of  starting  test 

Date  of  completing  test. 

Name  of  variety 

Source  of  seed. 

123456789         10 


a. 


1). 


c. 


(1. 


e. 


h. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  217 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE  58 

THE   EARLY   DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   BARLEY 
PLANT 

Object.  —  To  study  the  germination  of  the  barley  kernel 
and  the  early  growth  and  development  of  the  plant. 

Explanation.  —  The  kernel  of  barley  is  not  like  the  kernel 
of  wheat,  though  it  is  somewhat  similar.  It  is  inclosed  within 
a  hull.  The  hull  adheres  to  the  kernel  as  in  oats,  and  with  it 
comprises  the  grain.  The  germ  of  the  barley  kernel  occupies 
a  small  place  at  one  end  of  the  kernel,  as  in  wheat  and  oats. 

When  the  kernel  of  barley  germinates,  it  usually  sends  out 
five  temporary  roots.  These  five  roots  help  supply  the  small 
plant  with  food  until  the  permanent  root  system  develops. 

Equipment.  —  1.  Plants  of  barley,  one,  two,  three,  and  four 
weeks  old,  seeded  one  inch  deep. 

2.  Plants  of  barley  two  and  four  weeks  old,  seeded  three 
inches  deep. 

Directions.  —  Dig  up  a  number  of  small  barley  plants  for 
this  study.  Observe  the  same  precautions  in  preparing  the 
plants  for  study  as  were  observed  with  wheat.  (See  Ex.  16.) 

Make  a  study  of  plants  one  week  old,  two  weeks  old,  three 
weeks  old,  and  four  weeks  old,  seeded  one  inch.  Also  make  a 
study  of  plants  two  weeks  old  and  four  weeks  old,  seeded 
three  inches.  (In  determining  age  of  plant  count  time  from 

218 


THE  EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  BARLEY  PLANT    219 

date  of  seeding.)  Make  drawings  of  the  plants  at  the  differ- 
ent stages  of  growth  and  from  the  different  depths  of  planting. 
Show  in  drawings  the  five  temporary  roots  which  develop 
first,  and  in  other  drawings  the  permanent  roots  which  de- 
velop somewhat  later,  and  are  sent  out  in  whorls  from  the 
nodes.  Show  how  the  distance  between  the  temporary  roots 
and  the  whorl  of  permanent  roots  depends  upon  the  depth  of 
planting.  Show  how  the  older  plants,  by  sending  out  new 
stems,  begin  to  tiller.  Group  the  drawings  so  that  they  will 
appear  well  on  the  page.  The  drawings  should  include  the 
root  system,  stems,  and  leaves  and  their  arrangement. 


220  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND    REPORT 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT  221 

STUDENT'S   NOTES   AND   REPORT 


•      EXERCISE  59 
THE    EARLY    DEVELOPMENT    OF   THE    OAT   PLANT 

Object.  —  To  study  the  germination  of  the  oat  kernel  and 
the  early  growth  and  development  of  the  plant. 

Explanation.  —  The  kernel  of  oats  is  not  like  the  kernel  of 
wheat,  though  it  is  somewhat  similar.  It  is  inclosed  within 
a  hull.  The  hull  adheres  to  the  oat  kernel  and  with  it  com- 
prises the  oat  grain.  The  germ  of  the  oat  kernel  occupies  a 
small  place  at  one  end  of  the  kernel,  as  in  wheat. 

When  the  kernel  of  oats  germinates,  it  sends  out  three 
temporary  roots.  These  three  roots  help  supply  the  small 
plant  with  food  until  the  permanent  root  system  develops. 

Equipment.  —  1.  Plants  of  oats  one,  two,  three,  and  four 
weeks  old,  seeded  one  inch  deep. 

2.  Plants  of  oats  two  and  four  weeks  old,  seeded  three 
inches  deep. 

Directions.  —  Dig  up  a  number  of  small  oat  plants  for 
this  study.  Observe  the  same  precaution  in  preparing  these 
plants  for  study  as  was  observed  with  wheat. 

Make  a  study  of  plants  one  week  old,  two  weeks  old,  three 
weeks  old,  and  four  weeks  old,  seeded  one  inch  deep.  Also 
make  a  study  of  plants  two  weeks  old  and  four  weeks  old, 
seeded  three  inches  deep.  (In  determining  age  of  plant  count 
time  from  date  of  seeding.) 

222 


THE  EARLY  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  OAT  PLANT     223 

Make  drawings  of  the  plants  at  the  different  stages  of 
growth  and  from  the  different  depths  of  planting.  Show  in 
drawings  the  three  temporary  roots  that  develop  first,  and 
in  other  drawings  the  permanent  roots  that  develop  some- 
what later  and  are  sent  out  in  whorls  from  the  nodes.  Show 
how  the  distance  between  the  temporary  roots  and  the  whorl 
of  permanent  roots  depends  upon  the  depth  of  planting. 
Show  how  the  older  plants  begin  to  tiller  by  sending  out  new 
stems. 

Group  the  drawings  so  that  they  will  appear  well  on  the 
page.  The  drawings  should  include  the  root  system,  stems, 
and  leaves  and  their  arrangement. 


224  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  225 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE  60 
JUDGING    DRAFT  HORSES 

Object. — To  study  the  draft  horse  and  observe  those 
factors  that  affect  its  quality  and  worth. 

Explanation.  —  The  draft  horse  is  used  principally  for 
hauling  heavy  loads.  In  order  to  perform  its  work  success- 
fully it  must  be  large  of  frame,  well  muscled,  and  heavy 
in  weight.  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  draft  horse  to 
be  a  rapid  mover,  yet  freedom  of  action  and  good  move- 
ment, when  associated  with  weight  and  good  muscular 
development,  are  always  desirable.  In  judging  draft  horses 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  mistake  fat  for  muscle. 
It  is  often  difficult  to  observe  defects  in  a  fat  draft  horse 
that  would  be  perfectly  evident  in  an  animal  of  thin 
flesh. 

Equipment.  —  A  good  draft  horse. 

Directions.  —  Examine  the  animal  carefully  and  estimate 
the  value  of  each  point  given  in  the  accompanying  score  card. 
While  judging  the  animal  by  the  score  card,  have  in  mind  an 
ideal  draft  horse.  You  can  obtain  an  idea  of  an  ideal  draft 
horse  from  the  best  individuals  seen  at  fairs  or  stock  shows, 
and  from  pictures  of  prize-winning  animals  that  appear  in 
every  good  farm  paper.  With  the  picture  of  an  ideal  animal  in 
mind  compare  each  point  of  the  animal  you  are  scoring  with 

226 


JUDGING  DRAFT  HORSES  227 

the  ideal.  The  standard  score  on  the  score  card  refers  to  an 
ideal  animal.  In  judging  each  point  record  the  number  of 
points  that  the  animal  falls  below  the  ideal.  The  accom- 
panying photograph,  Fig.  15,  shows  the  location  of  the 
points  described  on  the  score  card  that  should  be  observed 
in  judging  a  draft  horse. 

General  Appearance  19  Per  Cent.  — The  height,  weight,  form, 
quality,  and  temperament  are  the  most  important  factors 
to  consider  in  the  general  appearance  of  the  draft  horse. 
Estimate  the  height  of  the  horse.  The  height  of  a  horse  is 
taken  by  measuring  from  the  ground  to  the  top  of  the  withers, 
and  is  usually  expressed  in  hands.  A  hand  is  four  inches. 
After  recording  the  estimated  height,  measure  the  horse  and 
record  its  actual  height. 

A  draft  horse  must  weigh  1600  pounds.  If  a  draft  horse 
weighs  less  than  this  and  is  of  draft  type,  it  is  called  a  "  wagon 
horse,"  or  "  chunk."  The  best  draft  horse  weighs  a  ton  or 
over. 

The  heavy  weight  of  the  draft  horse  should  be  due  to  its 
massiveness  and  great  muscular  development  rather  than  to 
fat.  Great  weight  is  desirable  in  a  draft  horse  because  it 
holds  him  on  the  ground  and  enables  him  to  secure  a  foot- 
hold when  starting  heavy  loads. 

Estimate  the  weight  of  the  horse  and  record  the  estimate. 
If  possible,  take  the  horse  to  a  scale  and  weigh  it  and  record 
its  actual  weight. 

In  form  the  draft  horse  should  be  blocky,  well  proportioned, 
and  symmetrical.  It  should  have  good  quality,  as  indicated 
by  clean  bone,  fine  hair,  and  loose  skin.  The  temperament 
should  be  energetic  and  the  disposition  good. 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


JUDGING  DRAFT  HORSES  229 

Head  and  Neck  9  Per  Cent.  —  The  head  and  neck  of  the 
draft  horse  should  be  of  such  form  and  shape  as  to  give 
the  horse  a  stylish  and  pleasing  appearance.  The  face  should 
be  straight;  the  eyes  large,  clear,  and  bright;  the  ears  erect 
and  of  medium  size,  and  the  neck  well  muscled  and  arched. 
Note  the  teeth  and  eyes  to  see  that  they  are  good. 

Forequarters  24.  Per  Cent.  —  The  shoulder  furnishes  the 
surface  against  which  the  collar  rests.  It  should  be  smooth 
and  strong.  If  rough  and  uneven,  continual  pulling  against 
the  collar  will  develop  sores  and  unsoundness.  See  that  the 
shoulders  are  not  sweenied.  This  is  a  sinking  of  the  muscles 
of  the  shoulder,  making  it  appear  flat  and  bare  of  muscle. 
The  slope  of  the  shoulder  should  be  about  forty-five  degrees  as 
this  affords  the  greatest  comfort  under  the  collar.  The  forearm 
should  be  clean  and  strongly  muscled.  The  cannon  should 
be  short,  wide,  and  clean.  Examine  the  cannon  for  splints. 
Splints  may  occur  on  any  part  of  the  region  and  appear  as 
hard,  rough  protrusions  on  the  bone.  Do  not  mistake  the 
two  small  bones  associated  with  the  cannon  for  splints. 
These  bones  occur  in  the  same  location  on  both  legs  and  may 
be  recognized  in  this  way.  The  pasterns  should  have  an 
angle  of  about  forty-five  or  fifty  degrees  when  viewed  from 
the  side.  This  affords  spring  to  the  gait  and  tends  to  pre- 
vent foot  and  leg  troubles. 

The  feet  of  the  draft  horse  should  be  large,  even  sized,  and 
sound.  The  foot  should  be  attached  to  the  leg  so  that  the 
toe  is  straight  ahead.  If  the  horse  toes  in,  it  will  "  wing," 
or  throw  its  feet  out  when  it  brings  them  forward.  If  the 
horse  toes  out,  it  will  "  paddle,"  or  throw  its  feet  in  when  it 
brings  them  forward.  The  toe  should  slope  at  an  angle  of 


LABORATORY  MANUAL   OF  AGRICULTURE 


about  forty-five  or  fifty  degrees,  thus  harmonizing  with  the 
slope  of  the  pastern. 

Body  9  Per  Cent.  —  The  chest  should  be  deep  and  wide,  and 
the  ribs  should  be  long  and  well  sprung.  This  affords  plenty 
of  room  for  the  development  of  the  heart  and  lungs  and  thus 
indicates  a  good  strong  constitution.  The  back  and  loin 


Fio.  16.  —  Rear  view  of  hind  legs  of  horses.  A  vertical  line  drawn  down- 
ward from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the 
hock,  cannon,  pastern,  and  foot.  Cut  A  represents  the  right  conforma- 
tion. B  and  C  are  common  defects.  (After  John  A.  Craig. ) 

should  be  straight,  short,  broad,  thickly  and  strongly  muscled. 
The  underline  should  be  low  and  flanks  full. 

Hindquarters  80  Per  Cent.  —  The  hindquarters  of  the  draft 
horse  should  be  heavy  and  well  muscled,  for  it  is  in  this  part 
of  the  animal  that  the  greatest  force  is  exerted  when  pulling. 
The  hips  of  the  draft  horse  should  be  broad  but  smooth,  and  in 
proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  body.  The  croup  should  be 
level,  wide,  and  fairly  long.  The  quarters  and  thighs  should 
be  broad  and  heavily  muscled. 


JUDGING  DRAFT  HORSES 


231 


Examine  the  hock  from  the  front  of  the  horse  and  observe 
its  outline.  It  should  be  large,  clean,  strong,  and  well  set. 
See  Figs.  16  and  17.  Examine  the  hocks  for  bone  spavins. 
This  is  the  most  common  trouble  of  the  hocks,  and  when 


FIG.  17.  —  Side  view  of  hind  legs  of  horses.  A  vertical  line  drawn  downward 
from  the  hip  joint  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  foot  and  divide  the 
gaskin  in  tho  middle  ;  and  a  vertical  line  drawn  from  the  point  of  the 
buttock  should  coincide  with  the  angle  of  the  hock  and  pastern  joints. 
Cut  A  represents  the  right  conformation.  B  and  C  are  common  defects. 
(After  John  A.  Craig.) 

visible,  appears  as  a  bony  enlargement  on  the  lower  inner  side 
of  the  hock  joint. 

The  fetlocks  should  be  wide,  strong,  and  clean,  and  the  pas- 
terns strong  and  springy.  The  feet  should  be  large,  even 
sized,  and  clean. 

Action  9  Per  Cent, — Walk  the  horse  and  observe  its  action. 
Its  movement  should  be  fast  for  a  heavy  horse,  elastic,  and 
regular,  and  the  feet  should  move  in  a  straight  line. 

Trot  the  horse  and  see  that  its  movement  is  free,  springy, 
straight,  and  balanced.  See  that  it  does  not  "  wing  "  or 
"  paddle."  Examine  the  horse  for  unsoundness  of  wind 
after  trotting. 


232 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


SCORE  CARD 
DRAFT  HORSES 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


STAND- 
ARD 


POINTS  DEFICIENT 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


12.  Neck,    well  muscled,  arched ;   throat- 
latch,  clean  ;  windpipe,  large  .     . 

Carried  forward 


General  Appearance —  19  per  cent 

1.  Height,  estimated,         hands;  actual, 

hands     

2.  Weight,  over  1600  lb.,  estimated, 

Ib. ;    actual,  lb.,  according   to 

age 6 

3.  Form,  broad,    massive,    well    propor- 

tioned, blocky,  symmetrical   ...  4 

4.  Quality,    refined ;    bone,  clean,  hard, 

large,    strong ;  tendons,    clean,    de- 
fined ;    skin  and  hair  fine  .... 

5.  Temperament,  energetic;  disposition, 

good 

Head  and  Neck  —  9  per  cent 

6.  Head,   lean,   proportionate  size ;  pro- 

file, straight 

7.  Ears,  medium  size,  well  carried,  alert 

8.  Forehead,  broad,  full 

9.  Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  same  color 

10.  Lower  jaw,  angles  wide,  clean   .      .     . 

11.  Muzzle,   neat;    nostrils,    large,   open, 

free  from  discharge  ;  lips,  thin,  even, 
firm 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 
DRAFT  HORSES  —  Continued 


233 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

STAND- 
ARD 

POINTS  DEFICIENT 

Stu- 
dent's 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

Stu- 
dent's 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

Brought  forward 
Forequarlers  —  24  per  cent 
13.  Shoulders,  moderately  sloping,  smooth, 
snug,  extending  into  back 

14.  Arm,  short,  strongly  muscled,  thrown 

3 

1 

15.  Forearm,  strongly  muscled,  wide,  clean 

16.  Knees,  deep,  straight,  wide,  strongly 
supported     

2 

o 

17.  Cannons,  short,  wide,  clean;  tendons, 

2 

18.  Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean 

19.  Pasterns,    moderate    length,   sloping, 
strong,  clean     

1 

2 

20.  Feet,   large,   even  size,   sound  ;    horn, 
dense,  waxy  ;    sole,  concave  ;    bars, 
strong;    frog,    large,    elastic;    heel, 
wide,  and    one   fourth    to    one   half 
the  lineal  length  of  toe      .... 

21.  Legs,  viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular 
line  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder 
should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the 
knee    cannon,     pastern,     and    foot. 
From  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line 
dropping    from    the    center    of    the 
elbow  joint  should  fall  upon  the  cen- 
ter of  the  knee  and  pastern  joints 
and  back  of  the  hoof    

8 

3 

Carried  forward 

234  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

DHAFT  HORSES  —  Continued 


SCALE  or  POINTS 

STAND- 
ARD 

POINTS  DEFICIENT 

Stu- 
dent's 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

Stu- 
dent's 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

Brought  forward 

Body  —  9  per  cent 
22.  Chest,  deep,  wide,  large  girth     .     .     . 

23.  Ribs,  long,  well  sprung,  close  ;  coupling, 
strong     

2 

2 

24.  Back,  straight,  broad,  strongly  muscled 
25.  Loins,  wide,  short,  thickly  muscled 

26.  Underline,  low  ;  flanks,  full    .... 

Hindquarters  —  30  per  cent 

27.  Hips,  broad,  smooth,  level,  well  mus- 
cled      

2 

2 

1 

2 

28.  Croup,  not  markedly  drooping,  wide, 
heavily  muscled    

2 

29.  Tail,  stylishly  set  and  carried    .     .     . 
30.  Quarters,  deep,  broad,  heavily  mus- 

1 

3 

31.  Gaskins,  long,  wide,  heavily  muacled  . 

32.  Hocks,  large,  clean,  strong,  wide,  well 
act      

2 

C 

Carried  forward 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 
DRAFT  HORSES  —  Continued 


235 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

STAND- 
ARD 

POINTS  DEFICIENT 

Stu- 
dent's 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

Stu- 
dent's 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

Brought  forward 
33.  Cannons,  short,  wide,  clean  ;   tendons, 

2 

34.  Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean  . 
35.  Pasterns,  moderately  sloping,  strong, 

1 

2 

36.  Feet,   large,   even  size,  sound  ;    horn, 
dense,   waxy  ;    sole,   concave  ;    bars, 
strong  ;    frog,    large,    elastic  ;    heel, 
wide,  and  one  fourth  to  one  half  the 

G 

37.  Legs,  viewed  from  behind,  a  perpen- 
dicular line  from  the  point  of  the  but- 
tock  should  fall  upon  the  center  of 
the  hock,  cannon,  pastern,  and  foot. 
From  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line 
from  the  hip  joint  should  fall  upon 
the  center  of  the  foot  and  divide  the 
gaskin  in  the  middle,  and  a  perpen- 
dicular line  from   the  point  of  the 
buttock  should  run  parallel  with  the 
line  of  the  cannon      

3 

Action  —  9  per  cent 
38.  Walk,  fast,  elastic,  regular,  straight   . 

39.  Trot,  free,  springy,  balanced,  straight  . 
Total    

6 

3 

100 

EXERCISE  61 
JUDGING   LIGHT   HORSES 

Object.  —  To  study  the  light  horse  and  observe  those 
factors  that  affect  its  quality  and  worth. 

Explanation.  —  There  are  three  general  types  of  light 
horses ;  namely,  the  coach  or  carriage  horse,  the  saddle 
horse,  and  the  roadster  horse.  The  coach  or  carriage  horse 
is  distinguished  by  its  plumpness,  symmetry,  and  action.  It 
is  well  muscled  over  all  parts  of  the  body.  Its  head  is  small, 
lean,  and  attractive ;  neck  long  and  graceful ;  limbs  clean, 
and  body  plump  and  round.  It  is  valued  for  its  graceful 
carriage  and  stylish  action.  In  the  roadster  horse  style  and 
graceful  movement  have  been  sacrificed  somewhat  for  speed 
and  endurance.  Besides  having  speed  and  endurance  the 
roadster  must  be  well  mannered  and  safe.  In  conformation 
this  type  lacks  the  fullness  and  symmetry  of  the  coach  horse, 
is  lighter  in  weight,  and  is  more  rangey  in  appearance. 

In  conformation  the  saddle  horse  is  intermediate  between 
the  coach  and  roadster  horse.  It  resembles  the  roadster 
more  than  the  coach  horse.  The  saddle  horse  is  prized  for 
its  graceful  movement  and  comfortable  gait  under  the  saddle. 

Equipment.  —  A  good  driving  or  riding  horse. 

Directions.  —  Examine  the  animal  carefully  and  estimate 
the  value  of  each  point  given  on  the  accompanying  score 

236 


JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES  237 

card.  Have  in  your  mind  a  picture  of  the  ideal  light  horse. 
An  idea  of  a  good  light  horse  may  be  obtained  by  studying 
the  pictures  of  the  best  animals  as  they  appear  in  good  farm 
papers,  and  by  observing  good  light  horses  at  fairs  and  stock 
shows.  The  standard  score  on  the  score  card  refers  to  an 
ideal  animal.  In  judging  each  point  record  the  number  of 
points  that  the  animal  falls  below  the  ideal.  The  accom- 
panying photograph,  Fig.  18,  shows  the  location  of  the 
points  described  on  the  score  card  that  should  be  observed 
in  judging  a  light  horse. 

General  Appearance  12  Per  Cent.  —  In  general  appearance 
the  light  horse  should  have  a  smooth,  symmetrical  form  and 
stylish  appearance.  The  quality  of  the  animal  should  be 
good,  as  shown  by  a  firm,  clean  bone  and  fine  skin  and  hair. 
In  temperament  it  should  be  energetic  and  active,  but  gentle 
and  kind  in  disposition. 

Head  and  Neck  6  Per  Cent.  —  The  shape  of  the  head  and 
neck  of  the  horse  adds  greatly  to  its  appearance.  It  is  chiefly 
from  this  standpoint  that  they  are  important.  The  head 
should  be  straight  and  thin,  the  features  of  the  face  distinct 
and  broad  enough  between  the  eyes  to  give  a  pleasing  appear- 
ance. The  nostrils  should  be  large  and  open ;  eyes  large, 
bright,  and  indicating  vigor ;  ears  erect  and  somewhat  pointed, 
and  neck  well  muscled,  arched,  and  joined  smoothly  to  the 
body. 

Forequarters  23  Per  Cent.  —  The  shoulders  should  be  long 
and  oblique  to  give  the  action  desired,  and  to  add  strength  to 
the  back  and  length  to  the  underline.  The  forelegs  should 
present  a  clean-cut  appearance,  should  be  broad,  cordy, 
straight,  and  free  from  coarseness.  The  cannon  should  be 


238 


LABORATORY    V  \\i'.\L  OF  AGRICULTURE 


JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES  239 

wide,  showing  very  little  shrinkage  below  the  knee,  as  a  broad 
support  is  necessary  for  the  knee  joint.  A  common-size  driv- 
ing horse  should  measure  at  least  eight  inches  around  the 
cannon  at  this  joint.  The  pasterns  should  be  strong  and 
should  slope  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  with  the 
ground.  The  feet  should  be  of  medium  size  and  of  good 
quality,  the  frog  large,  and  the  heel  wide.  Examine  the 
feet  and  legs  for  unsoundness  as  in  judging  the  draft  horse. 

Body  10  Per  Gent.  —  The  light  horse  should  have  a  deep 
rather  than  a  broad  chest  as  it  is  not  called  upon  for  heavy 
work,  and  a  broad  chest  would  interfere  with  the  free  play 
of  the  shoulder,  which  is  very  desirable  in  this  class  of  horses. 
The  ribs  should  be  well  sprung,  as  horses  with  well-sprung 
ribs  present  a  better  appearance  and  are  usually  easier 
keepers.  In  proportion  the  body  should  be  short  above 
and  long  underneath,  as  this  adds  strength  and  gives  the 
legs  free  play.  The  loin  should  be  short,  broad,  and 
muscled. 

Hindquarters  29  Per  Cent.  —  The  croup  should  be  well 
muscled  and  long.  Length  of  croup  allows  greater  length  of 
muscle  in  this  region  and  insures  greater  speed.  The  hind- 
quarters should  be  heavily  muscled  and  when  viewed  from 
behind  should  show  a  heavy  muscular  development  between 
the  legs.  The  hind  legs  should  be  well  carried ;  if  bent  too 
far  forward  they  are  likely  to  develop  a  curb,  while  if  too 
straight,  they  are  more  subject  to  thoroughpins  or  spavins. 
The  hock  should  be  broad,  allowing  plenty  of  room  for  the 
attachment  of  muscles.  The  hock  should  be  carefully  exam- 
ined for  unsoundness.  The  hind  cannon  should  be  wide, 
short,  and  clean ;  the  hind  pasterns  of  medium  size  and  length. 


240  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

The  hind  feet  should  be  of  medium  size,  and  should  have 
strong,  wide  heels  and  full  fronts. 

Action  20  Per  Cent.  —  Walk  the  horse  back  and  forth  and 
observe  the  action.  The  step  should  be  quick,  elastic,  and 
balanced.  Trot  the  horse  and  notice  its  action  when  moving 
more  rapidly.  It  should  have  free  action,  a  rapid,  straight, 
and  regular  movement,  and  if  a  coach  horse,  its  action  should 
be  high. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


241 


SCORE  CARD 

LIGHT  HOUSES 


SCALE  or  POINTS 

STAND- 
ARD 

POINTS  DEFICIENT 

Stu- 
dent's 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

Stu- 
dent's 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

General  Appearance  —  12  per  cent 
1.  Form,  symmetrical,  smooth,  stylish  .     . 

2.  Quality,  bone,  clean,  firm,  and  indicat- 
ing   sufficient   substance  ;    tendons, 
defined  ;  hair  and  skin,  fine  .... 

3.  Temperament,  lactive  ;  kind  disposition 
Head  and  Neck  —  6  per  cent 

4 

4 

4 

1 

5.  Muzzle,  fine  ;   nostrils,  large  ;  lips,  thin, 
even  ;   teeth,    sound    

1 

6.  Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  large      .     .     . 
7.  Forehead,  broad,  full     

1 

1 

8.  Ears,  medium  sized,  pointed,  well  car- 
ried, and  not  far  apart    

9.  Neck,    muscled  ;    crest,   high  ;    throat- 
latch,  fine  ;  windpipe,  large  .... 

Forequarters  —  23  per  cent 
10.  Shoulders,  long,  smooth,  with  muscle 
oblique,  extending  into  back    .     .     . 

11.  Arms,  short,  thrown  forward       .     .     . 
12.  Forearms,  muscled,  long,  wide    .     .     . 

13.  Knees,    clean,    wide,    straight,    deep, 
strongly  supported     

1 

1 

2 

1 

2 

2 

14.  Cannons,  short,  wide  ;  sinews,  large,  set 

2 

Carried  forward 


242  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

LIQHT  HORSES  —  Continued 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

STAND- 
ARD 

POINTS  DEFICIENT 

Stu- 
dent's 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

Stu- 
dent's 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Boon 

Brought  forward 
15    Fetlocks   wide  straight      

1 

10.  Pasterns,  strong;    angle  with  ground 

1 

17.  Feet,    medium,    even    sized,   straight; 
horn,  dense  ;  frog,  large,  elastic  ;  bars, 
strong  ;   sole,  concave  ;   heel,  wide    . 

18.  Legs,  viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular 
line  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder 
should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the 
knee,  cannon,  pastern,  and  foot.  From 
the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  drop- 
pin?  from  the  renter  of  the  elbow 
joint  should  fall  upon  the  center  of 
the  knee  and  pastern  joints  and  back 

6 

4 

Body  —  10  per  cent 
10.  Withers,  muscled  and  well  finished  at 

1 

20.  Chest,  deep,  low  ;   large  girth      .     .     . 
21    Ribs   long,  sprung,  close    

2 

2 

22.  Back,  straight,  short,  broad,  muscled   . 

2 

2 

24.  Underline,  long;    flank  let  down     .     . 

Hindquarters  —  29  per  cant 
25.  Hips,  smooth,  wide,  level  

1 

2 

20.  Croup,  long,  wide,  muscular    .... 
27.  Tail,  attached  high,  well  carried  .     .     . 

2 

1 

Carried  forward 


STUDENTS  NOTES  AND   REPORT 
LTQHT  HORSES  —  Continued 


243 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

STAND- 
ARD 

POINTS  DEFICIENT 

Stu- 
dent's 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

Stu- 
dent's 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

Brought  forward 
28.  Thighs,  long,  muscular,  spread  ;    open 

2 

29.  Quarters,  heavily  muscled,  deep  .     .     . 
30.  Gaskin    or   lower   thighs,    long,  wide, 

2 

2 



31.  Hocks,  clearly  defined,  wide,  straight   . 
32.  Cannons,  short,  wide  ;  sinews,  large,  set 

5 

2 

33.  Fetlocks,  wide,  straight      

1 

34.  Pasterns,  strong,  sloping    

2 

4 

35.  Feet,    medium,    even   sized,    straight; 
horn,  dense  ;  frog,  large,  elastic  ;  bars, 
strong  ;  sole,  concave  ;  heel,  wide,  high 

36.  Legs,  viewed  from  behind,  a  perpendic- 
ular line  from  point  of  the  buttock 
should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the 
hock,    cannon,    pastern,    and    foot. 
From  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line 
from  the  hip  joint  should  fall  upon 
the  center  of  the  foot  and  divide  the 
gaskin  in  the  middle  ;  and  a  perpen- 
dicular  line  from   the  point  of  the 
buttock  should  run  parallel  with  the 
line  of  the  cannon  

4 

Action  —  20  per  cent 
37.  Walk,  elastic,  quick,  balanced    .     .     . 

38.  Trot,  rapid,  straight,  regular,  high   .     . 
Total     

5 

18 

100 

EXERCISE  62 
COMPARATIVE    JUDGING    OF    HORSES 

Object.  —  To  place  the  animals  of  a  class  of  horses  accord- 
ing to  their  worth. 

Explanation.  —  When  a  good  horseman  selects  a  valuable 
horse,  he  has  in  mind  an  ideal  of  the  type  of  animal  that 
he  wants.  He  makes  a  careful  study  of  all  the  points  of 
the  animal  and  chooses  the  individual  that  most  nearly 
meets  his  ideal.  If  he  is  placing  a  class  of  horses,  he  makes 
a  careful  study  of  each  individual  in  the  class  and  places 
the  best  individual  first.  The  other  animals  of  the  class 
are  in  a  similar  way  placed  in  the  order  of  their  worth. 

It  is  necessary  for  the  beginner  who  wants  to  become  pro- 
ficient in  the  judging  of  horses  to  study  the  quality  of  the 
individuals  of  the  class  and  to  become  familiar  with  the 
characteristics  that  affect  value.  After  becoming  familiar 
with  each  animal,  he  can  then  place  them  according  to  their 
merits. 

Equipments.  —  A  class  of  four  good  draft  horses  or  a  class 
of  four  good  driving  horses.  All  the  animals  of  the  class 
should  be  of  about  the  same  age  and  same  condition  of  flesh.1 

1  The  instructor  may  use  his  own  judgment  in  selecting  a  class 
of  animals.  Sometimes  one  class  will  be  more  easily  available  than 
the  other.  If  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  a  class  of  four,  the  exercise 
can  be  conducted  with  two  animals. 

244 


COMPARATIVE  JUDGING  OF  HORSES  245 

Directions.  —  Number  the  animals  from  one  to  four  and 
place  them  side  by  side.  Examine  thoroughly  and  systemati- 
cally all  the  animals  in  the  class.  Keep  in  mind  the  relative 
value  of  the  points  discussed  on  the  score  card.  After  this 
thorough  examination  decide  which  animal  is  best.  This 
can  be  done  by  balancing  the  good  and  bad  points  of  one  ani- 
mal against  those  of  another.  When  the  best  animal  is 
selected,  record  its  rank  in  the  blank  space  opposite  its  num- 
ber on  the  outline  form  of  Student's  Notes  and  Report.  In 
like  manner  choose  the  second  best  animal  in  the  class  and 
record  its  rank  in  the  space  opposite  its  number.  The  third 
and  fourth  animals  are  to  be  placed  and  recorded  in  the  same 
manner. 

Discuss  fully  under  "  Student's  Notes  and  Report "  the  good 
and  bad  points  of  each  animal  in  the  class.  Discuss  them  in 
the  order  of  your  placing.  Give  in  detail  the  reasons  for 
placing  each  animal  as  you  did. 


246  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


ORDER  or  NUMBERING 
THE  CLAM 

ORDER  or  STUDENT'S 
PLACING 

CORRECT  PLACING 

1 

2 

3 

4 

STUDENTS   NOTES  AND   REPORT 
STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


247 


IMS  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


EXERCISE  63 
JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

Object.  —  To  study  the  dairy  cow  and  observe  those 
factors  that  affect  her  quality  and  worth. 

Explanation.  —  A  dairy  cow  is  used  primarily  for  the  pro- 
duction of  milk  and  butter  fat.  The  most  profitable  dairy 
cow  is  the  one  that  produces  the  maximum  amount  of  milk 
and  butter  fat  for  a  given  amount  of  feed.  Two  methods 
are  used  in  selecting  profitable  dairy  cows.  One  method  of 
selection  is  to  consider  the  record  of  the  animal  and  from 
this  record  to  determine  her  ability  to  produce  milk  and 
butter  fat.  The  other  method  of  selection  is  to  consider 
the  form  or  conformation  of  the  animal.  The  first  method 
is  the  better  because  the  actual  record  of  the  animal  is  con- 
sidered. This  method  cannot  always  be  employed  because 
the  record  of  the  dairy  cow  is  not  always  available.  When 
the  record  of  the  cow  is  not  available,  the  only  means  of  de- 
termining her  value  is  by  studying  her  form  and  conforma- 
tion. High  milk  production  is  usually  associated  with  a 
definite  form  or  conformation.  The  dairy  cow  is  thin  and 
muscular  and  in  this  respect  differs  from  the  beef  animal. 
This  condition  is  due  not  to  her  inability  to  utilize  food 
economically,  but  to  her  tendency  to  convert  the  food  con- 
sumed into  milk  rather  than  into  body  fat. 

249 


250  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Equipment.  —  A  good  dairy  cow. 

Directions.  —  Examine  the  animal  carefully  and  estimate 
the  value  of  each  point  given  on  the  accompanying  score 
card.  While  judging  the  animal  by  the  score  card,  have  in 
mind  an  ideal  animal.  You  can  obtain  an  idea  of  an  ideal 
animal  from  the  best  individuals  that  you  have  seen  at  stock 
shows  and  fairs,  or  from  pictures  of  the  winners  at  the  Inter- 
national Live  Stock  Show.  With  the  picture  of  an  ideal 
animal  in  mind  compare  each  point  of  the  animal  you  are 
scoring  with  the  ideal. 

The  standard  score  on  the  score  card  refers  to  the  ideal 
animal.  In  judging  each  point  record  the  number  of  points 
that  the  animal  falls  below  the  ideal.  The  accompanying 
photograph,  Fig.  19,  shows  the  location  of  the  points  de- 
scribed on  the  score  card  that  should  be  observed  in  judging  a 
dairy  cow. 

The  Head  8  Per  Cent.  —  Examine  the  general  appearance 
of  the  head  and  note  the  size  of  the  muzzle.  The  muzzle 
should  be  broad,  for  this  is  usually  associated  with  a  good 
feeder.  The  face  of  the  dairy  cow  should  be  of  good  length 
and  free  from  extra  flesh.  A  fleshy  face  is  not  associated  with 
high  milk  production.  The  eyes  should  be  large,  mild,  and 
quiet  but  not  drowsy.  A  large  milk  production  is  not  asso- 
ciated with  a  drowsy  eye.  The  ears  should  be  of  medium 
size,  fine  textured,  and  well  supplied  on  the  inside  with  waxy 
secretion  of  yellow  color.  The  waxy  secretion  yellow  in 
color  indicates  vigor  and  general  good  health  in  the  animal. 

Forequarters  10  Per  Cent.  —  The  throat  should  be  thin  and 
clean-cut.  The  neck  should  be  of  medium  length,  thin,  and 
free  of  flesh,  in  direct  contrast  to  the  beef  animal.  A  short, 


JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


251 


252  LABORATORY   MANUAL   OF    AGRICULTURE 

beefy  neck  does  not  denote  high  milk  production.  The 
neck  should  be  joined  smoothly  to  the  shoulders,  which 
should  be  sloping.  It  should  be  smooth  and  have  a  light 
brisket.  The  withers  should  be  narrow  and  sharp,  not 
broad  and  flat,  as  this  indicates  beefiness.  The  forelegs 
should  be  straight,  clean,  set  well  under  the  body,  and  well 
apart.  Legs  set  too  close  together  indicate  lack  of  room 
for  the  development  of  lungs  and  heart,  and  therefore  a  poor 
constitution. 

Body  25  Per  Cent.  —  The  chest  of  the  dairy  cow  should 
be  deep  and  roomy,  and  have  a  broad  floor,  as  these  charac- 
teristics all  indicate  more  room  for  the  heart  and  lungs,  and 
consequently  a  strong  constitution.  The  back  should  be 
straight  and  strong.  A  weak,  sunken  back  is  a  common  de- 
fect in  dairy  cows.  It  indicates  insufficient  strength  to  carry 
a  heavy  barrel.  The  vertebra  or  spinal  processes  along  the 
spinal  column  should  be  prominent  and  open.  The  lateral 
nerves  pass  out  between  the  vertebra,  and  plenty  of  room 
for  these  nerves  is  desirable.  The  barrel  of  the  dairy  cow  is 
her  storehouse  for  food.  The  dairy  animal,  to  be  profitable, 
must  consume  a  large  quantity  of  food  and  she  must  have  a 
large  barrel  in  which  to  store  it.  The  ribs  should  be  well 
sprung  and  wide  apart,  thus  making  a  large  barrel  possible. 
The  loin  should  be  broad  and  strong,  especially  broad  to 
avoid  trouble  at  time  of  parturition. 

Hindquarters  12  Per  Cent.  —  The  hips  of  the  dairy  cow 
should  be  prominent  and  wide  apart,  as  this  indicates  both 
capacity  in  the  barrel  and  room  in  the  pelvic  region.  The 
rump  should  be  long,  and  high  at  the  tail  head.  A  long 
rump  is  associated  with  plenty  of  room  for  udder  attachment. 


JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE  253 

The  tail  should  be  thin,  tapering,  and  long,  the  tail  bone  ex- 
tending at  least  to  the  hocks,  as  a  long  tail  is  associated  with 
a  high  nervous  development,  much  desired  in  a  dairy  cow. 
The  hind  legs  should  set  well  apart,  especially  at  the  hocks, 
thus  allowing  plenty  of  room  for  the  development  of  the 
udder. 

Mammary  Development  80  Per  Cent.  —  The  udder  is  the 
most  important  part  of  the  dairy  cow.  It  should  be  attached 
high  behind  and  carried  well  forward,  thus  affording  the 
maximum  amount  of  room  for  its  development.  It  should 
be  flexible,  and  when  empty,  drop  into  folds.  A  fleshy  udder 
is  not  desirable,  as  there  is  not  sufficient  room  for  the  secre- 
tory glands.  The  quarters  should  be  even  and  not  cut  up. 
The  teats  should  be  wide  apart,  uniformly  placed,  and  of 
convenient  size,  which  qualities  aid  in  milking  and  insure 
greater  capacity  in  the  udder.  A  thorough  examination 
should  be  made  to  see  that  all  teats  are  perfect.  A  stream 
of  milk  should  be  drawn  from  each  teat.  The  milk  veins 
should  be  large  and  twisting,  and  should  extend  well  forward. 
The  size  of  the  milk  veins  indicates  the  amount  of  blood 
that  can  pass  through  the  circulation  to  the  udder.  The 
milk  wells  or  cavities  where  the  milk  veins  pass  into  the  body 
should  be  large  and  numerous.  Examine  the  cow  and  de- 
termine the  number  of  milk  wells.  Every  cow  has  two  milk 
wells,  and  some  cows  have  as  many  as  fourteen. 

General  Appearance  15  Per  Cent. — The  disposition  of  the 
dairy  cow  should  be  quiet  and  gentle,  yet  she  should  show 
indications  of  a  high  nervous  development  well  under  con- 
trol, since  this  characteristic  indicates  milk  production. 
Health  and  vigor  will  be  determined  by  her  wide-awake 


254  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

appearance  and  by  the  quality  of  her  hair  and  hide.  A 
strong  constitution  is  shown  by  a  deep,  broad  chest.  Quality 
is  indicated  by  a  soft,  thin,  mellow  hide.  Determine  this  by 
gathering  up  a  handful  of  hide  over  the  last  two  or  three 
ribs.  The  hair  should  be  fine  and  the  secretions  oily  and 
abundant,  as  this  indicates  a  healthy  condition. 

Temperament,  or  the  tendency  to  dairy  performance,  is 
indicated  by  the  general  appearance  of  the  animal.  She 
should  give  the  impression  of  being  an  individual  capable  of 
converting  food  into  milk. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


255 


THE   SCORE  CARD 
DAIRY  CATTLE  —  Cow 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

STAND- 
ARD 

1 
POINTS  DE- 
FICIENT 

2 
POINTS  DE- 
FICIENT 

Stu- 
dent's 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

Stu- 
dent's 
Score 

Cor-  ' 

rected 
Score 

Head  —  8  per  cent 
1.  Muzzle,  broad       

1 

2.  Jaw,  strong,  firmly  joined       .... 
3.  Face,  medium  length,  clean    .... 
4.  Forehead,  broad  between  eyes,  dishing 
5.  Eyes,  large,  full,  mild,  bright  .... 
6.  Ears,  medium  size,  fine  texture,  secre- 
tions oily  and  abundant,  yellow  color 
Forequarters  —  10  per  cent 
7.  Throat,  clean   

1 

1 

1 

?. 

2 

1 

8.  Neck,  long,  spare,  smoothly  joined  to 
shoulders,  free  from  dewlap    .     .     . 
9.  Withers,  narrow,  sharp       .     .     . 

2 

3 

10.  Shoulders,  sloping,  smooth,  brisket,  light 
11.  Forelegs,  straight,  clean,  well  set  under 

3 

1 

Body  —  25  per  cent 
12.  Crops,  free  from  fleshiness     .... 
13.  Chest,  deep,  roomy  ;  floor,  broad 
14.  Back,  straight,  strong,  vertebra  open   . 
15.  Ribs,  long,  deep,  sprung,  wide  apart  . 
16.  Barrel,  deep,  long,  capacious  .... 
17.  Loin,  broad,  strong  

1     " 

6 

3 

3 

10 

2 

Carried  forward 

256  LABORATORY   MANUAL   OF  AGRICULTURE 

DAIRY  CATTLE — Cow  —  Continued 


SCALE  or  POINTS 


STAND- 
ARD 


POINTS  DE- 
FICIENT 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


POINTS  D»- 

riCIENT 


Stu- 
,|.  i.t1, 
BOON 


Cor- 

r,  ,  •.  ,| 

Boon 


Hindquarters  —  12  per  cent 

18.  Hips,  prominent,  wide  apart    ....  1 

19.  Rump,  long,  level,  not  sloping    ...  4 

20.  Pin  bones,  wide  apart 1 

21.  Tail,  neatly  set  on,  long,  tapering  .     .  1 

22.  Thighs,  spare,  not  fleshy 3 

23.  Hind   legs,   well   apart,   giving   ample 

room  for  udder 2 

Mammary  Development  —  30  per  cent 

24.  Udder,   large,   very   flexible,   attached 

high  behind,  carrying  well  forward ; 
quarters,  even,  not  cut  up  ....          15 

25.  Teats,   wide  apart,   uniformly  placed, 

convenient  size 5 

26.  Milk  veins,  large,  tortuous,  extending 

well  forward 4 

27.  Milk  wells,  large 6 

General  Appearances  —  15  per  cent 

28.  Disposition,  quiet,  gentle 2 

29.  Health,  thrifty,  vigorous 3 

30.  Quality,  free  from  coarseness  through- 

out;   skin,  soft,  pliable;    secretions, 
abundant ;   hair,  fine 4 

31.  Temperament,    inherent   tendency    to 

dairy  performance 6 

Total     .  .        100 


EXERCISE   64 
JUDGING    BEEF    CATTLE 

Object.  —  To  study  the  beef  animal  and  observe  those 
factors  that  affect  its  quality  and  worth. 

Explanation.  —  The  principal  purpose  of  beef  cattle  is  the 
production  of  meat.  The  beef  animal  that 'most  nearly  meets 
the  demands  of  the  butcher  is  the  one  that  the  farmer 
should  produce.  The  animal  that  brings  the  highest  price  on 
the  market  is  the  one  that  will  dress  the  highest  per  cent  of 
salable  meat  and  will  have  a  maximum  amount  of  this  meat 
located  in  those  parts  of  the  body  from  which  the  most  valu- 
able cuts  are  secured. 

Equipment  —  1 .   A  good  beef  steer. 

Directions.  —  Examine  the  animal  carefully  and  estimate 
the  value  of  each  point  given  on  the  accompanying  score 
card.  While  judging  the  animal  by  the  score  card,  have  in 
mind  an  ideal  animal.  You  can  obtain  an  idea  of  an  ideal 
animal  from  the  best  individuals  that  you  have  seen  at  stock 
shows  and  fairs,  or  from  pictures  of  the  winners  at  the  In- 
ternational Live  Stock  Show.  With  the  picture  of  an  ideal 
animal  in  mind  compare  each  point  of  the  animal  you  are 
scoring  with  the  ideal.  The  standard  score  on  the  score 
card  refers  to  an  ideal  animal.  In  judging  each  point  record 
the  per  cent  that  the  animal  falls  below  the  ideal.  The 
s  257 


IMS  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

accompanying  photograph,  Fig.  20,  shows  the  location  of 
the  points  described  on  the  score  card  that  should  be  ob- 
served in  judging  a  beef  animal. 

General  Appearance  40  Per  Cent.  —  The  value  of  an  animal 
as  a  meat  producer  depends  upon  its  form,  quality,  condition, 
and  weight.  Form  has  reference  to  the  shape  of  the  animal. 
The  shape  of  the  animal  should  be  such  that  it  will  carry 
the  maximum  amount  of  the  most  valuable  cuts  of  meat. 
Quality  is  determined  by  the  condition  of  the  bone,  hair, 
skin,  and  flesh.  Good  quality  means  that  the  animal  has 
clean  bone,  soft,  mellow  skin,  general  refinement  of  features 
and  appearance,  and  all  parts  of  the  body  covered  thickly 
and  evenly  with  firm,  mellow  flesh.  Condition  refers  to  the 
finish  of  the  animal.  The  animal  is  said  to  be  finished  when 
it  is  fat.  A  fat  animal  will  produce  a  higher  per  cent  of 
dressed  meat,  and  the  meat  is  more  valuable  because  it  is 
more  tender  and  palatable. 

In  addition  to  these  factors  the  weight  of  the  animal  for 
its  age  should  also  be  considered.  Estimate  the  weight  of 
the  animal  before  weighing  and  record  your  estimate  on  the 
blank  in  the  score  card.  Take  the  animal  to  stock  scales 
if  possible  and  determine  its  actual  weight. 

Head  and  Neck  7  Per  Cent.  —  Examine  the  general  appear- 
ance of  the  head  and  neck.  Note  the  size  of  muzzle ;  the 
muzzle  should  be  broad,  the  mouth  large,  and  the  nostrils 
large  and  open,  for  these  qualities  denote  a  good  feeder. 
The  neck  should  be  short,  broad,  and  refined,  and  in  correct 
proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  body. 

Forequarters  9  Per  Cent.  —  The  shoulder  should  fit  smoothly 
into  the  body  without  too  much  prominence  of  shoulder 


JUDGING  BEEF  CATTLE 


259 


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260  LABORATORY   MANUAL  OP   AGRICULTURE 

blades.  The  lower  part  of  the  shoulder  should  be  smooth, 
well  covered  with  flesh,  and  not  too  heavy.  The  forelegs 
should  be  short,  standing  well  apart,  and  the  foreflank  should 
be  full. 

Body  30  Per  Cent.  —  Observe  the  body  from  the  side ;  it 
should  present  the  general  outlines  of  a  rectangle.  The  top 
line  should  be  straight  from  head  to  tail.  The  bottom  line 
should  be  low,  straight,  and  parallel  to  the  top  line.  The 
chest  should  be  deep  and  full,  and  the  hind  flank  should  be 
full  and  even  with  the  underline. 

Hindquarters  14  Per  Cent.  —  Observe  the  animal  from  the 
rear.  The  hindquarters  should  be  deep  and  as  broad  as 
the  shoulders.  The  rump  should  be  long  and  wide,  and  the 
tail  head  smooth.  The  twist  should  be  deep  and  plump. 
The  legs  should  be  wide  apart,  straight,  and  short. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES   AND  REPORT 


261 


THE   SCORE   CARD 

BEEF  CATTLE  —  FAT 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


STAND- 
ABO 


POINTS  DEFICIENT 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


General  Appearance  —  40  per  cent 

1.  Weight,  estimated,         Ib.  ;  actual, 

lb.,  —  according  to  age    .....          10 

2.  Form,    straight     top    and    underline, 

deep,  broad,  low  set,  stylish,  smooth, 
compact,  symmetrical 

3.  Quality,  fine,  soft  hair;    loose,  pliable 

skin  of  medium  thickness;  dense, 
clean,  medium-sized  bone  .... 

4.  Condition,  deep,  even  covering  of  firm, 

mellow  flesh  ;  free  from  patches,  ties, 
lumps,  and  rolls ;  full  cod  and  flank 
indicating  finish 12 

Head  and  Neck  —  7  per  cent 

5.  Muzzle,  broad;  mouth,  large;  nostrils, 

large  and  open 1 

6.  Eyes,  large,  clear,  placid 1 

7.  Face,  short ;  jaw,  strong 1 

8.  Forehead,  broad,  full 

9.  Ears,  medium  size  ;  fine  texture  ...  1 

10.  Neck,  short,  thick,  blending  smoothly 

with  shoulder ;  throat,  clean  with  light 
dewlap 2 

Foreguarters  —  9  per  cent 

11.  Shoulder  vein,  full 1 

12.  Shoulders,  smoothly  covered,  compact. 

snug,  neat 4 


Carried  forward 


262  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

BEEF  CATTLE  —  FAT  —  Continued 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


STAND- 
AKD 


POINTS  DEFICIENT 


Stu- 

<l<  nt.^ 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Boon 


Brought  forward 
13.  Brisket,  trim,  neat ;  breast,  full   .     .     . 


52 
2 


14.  Legs,  wide  apart,  straight,  short ;  arm, 

full ;  shank,  wide 

Body  —  30  per  cent 

15.  Chest,   full,  deep,  wide;    girth,  large; 

crops,  full 

16.  Ribs,  long,  arched,  thickly  and  smoothly 

fleshed 

17.  Back,     broad,    straight,    thickly    and 

smoothly  fleshed S 

18.  Loin,  thick,  broad 

19.  Flank,  full,  even  with  underline  ...  2 

Hindquarters  —  14  per  cent 

20.  Hips,  smooth 

21.  Rump,   long,   wide,    level ;    tail    head, 

smooth ;    pinbones,  wide  apart,  not 
prominent 3 

22.  Thighs,  deep,  full 4 

23.  Twist,  deep,  plump 4 

24.  Legs,     wide    apart,    straight,    short ; 

shanks,  fine,  smooth 2 

Total     .  100 


EXERCISE  65 
COMPARATIVE    JUDGING    OF    CATTLE 

Object.  — To  place  the  animals  of  a  class  of  cattle  accord- 
ing to  their  worth. 

Explanation.  —  When  a  stockman  goes  into  a  herd  of 
cattle,  or  when  a  judge  goes  into  a  show  ring,  he  has  in 
mind  the  type  of  animal  that  he  desires  for  his  purpose. 
If  the  judge  is  placing  a  class  of  beef  cattle,  he  examines 
the  entire  class,  keeping  in  mind  the  ideal  beef  animal,  and 
chooses  that  individual  for  first  which  most  nearly  meets 
this  ideal.  In  the  same  way  he  places  in  the  order  of  their 
merit  the  other  animals  of  the  class.  In  a  similar  manner 
the  judge  of  dairy  cattle,  keeping  in  mind  the  ideal  dairy 
cow,  awards  the  places  in  the  dairy  cattle  class. 

It  is  necessary  for  the  beginner  who  wants  to  become  pro- 
ficient in  judging  cattle  to  study  the  characteristics  of  the 
individuals  of  the  class  and  to  become  familiar  with  the  char- 
acteristics that  affect  value.  After  becoming  familiar  with 
each  animal  the  beginner  can  place  it  according  to  its 
merits. 

Equipment.  —  A  class  of  four  good  dairy  cows,  or  a  class 
of  four  good  beef  steers,  all  the  animals  of  the  class  to  be  of 
about  the  same  age  and  same  condition  of  flesh.1 

1  In  selecting  a  class  of  animals  for  this  exercise  the  instructor 
should  be  governed  by  the  relative  importance  of  the  two  classes  of 

263 


264  LABORATORY   MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Directions.  —  Number  the  animals  from  one  to  four  and 
place  them  side  by  side.  Examine  thoroughly  and  systemati- 
cally all  the  animals  in  the  class.  Keep  in  mind  the  relative 
value  of  the  points  discussed  in  the  score  card.  After  this 
thorough  examination  decide  which  animal  is  best.  This 
can  be  done  by  balancing  the  good  and  bad  points  of  one 
animal  against  those  of  another. 

When  the  best  animal  is  selected,  record  its  rank  in  the 
space  opposite  its  number.  In  like  manner  choose  the 
second-best  animal  of  the  class  and  record  its  rank  in  the 
space  opposite  its  number.  The  third  and  fourth  animals  in 
the  class  are  placed  in  the  same  manner.  Record  their 
placings. 

Discuss  fully  under  Student's  Notes  and  Report  the  good 
and  bad  points  of  each  animal  in  the  class.  Discuss  them  in 
the  order  of  your  placing.  Give  in  detail  the  reasons  for 
placing  each  animal  as  you  did. 

animals  in  the  community.  If  the  dairy  industry  is  of  greater 
importance,  a  dairy  class  should  be  selected  If  not,  a  beef  class 
should  be  selected. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT                     265 
STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 

ORDER  or  NUMBERING) 

OKDER  OF  STUDENT'S 
PLACING 

CORRECT  PLACING 

1 

2 

3 

4 

266  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  2G7 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


EXERCISE  66 
JUDGING    FAT    HOGS 

Object.  —  To  study  the  hog  and  observe  those  factors  that 
affect  its  quality  and  worth. 

Explanation.  —  There  are  two  general  classes  of  hogs, 
commonly  sold  on  the  market,  the  fat  or  lard  hog  and  the 
bacon  hog.  The  lard  or  fat  hog  is  short  legged,  broad,  and 
of  medium  length.  It  fattens  easily  and  is  used  on  the 
market  for  making  lard,  supplying  hams  and  shoulders,  and 
furnishing  cheap  side  meat.  The  bacon  hog  is  long,  deep, 
and  narrow  in  body,  has  long  legs,  and  is  used  chiefly  for  the 
production  of  bacon. 

The  fat  hog  is  best  suited  to  the  north  central  United 
States  because  of  the  abundance  of  corn  in  this  region  and 
the  ability  of  the  fat  hog  to  fatten  rapidly  on  this  food.  In 
some  of  the  northern  states  of  the  United  States  and  in 
Canada  the  bacon  hog  is  generally  produced. 

The  fat  hog  that  is  in  greatest  demand  is  the  one  that  will 
dress  the  largest  percentage  of  good  salable  meat.  It  sup- 
plies the  demand  for  good  hams  and  shoulders,  and  furnishes 
a  large  amount  of  lard. 

Equipment.  —  A  good  fat  hog. 

Directions.  —  Examine  the  animal  carefully  and  estimate 
the  value  of  each  point  given  on  the  accompanying  score 

268 


JUDGING  FAT  HOGS 


269 


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4111 


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a  •>>  «  « 

03  K  fe  W 


270  LABORATORY   MANUAL  OF   AGRICULTURE 

card.  Have  in  your  mind  a  picture  of  the  ideal  fat  hog.  An 
idea  of  an  ideal  hog  may  be  obtained  by  studying  pictures 
of  winners  at  the  International  Live  Stock  Show  or  by  ob- 
serving good  individual  specimens.  The  standard  score  on 
the  score  card  refers  to  an  ideal  animal.  In  judging  each 
point  record  the  number  of  points  that  the  animal  falls 
below  the  ideal.  The  accompanying  photograph,  Fig.  21, 
shows  the  location  of  the  points  described  on  the  score  card 
that  should  be  observed  in  judging  a  fat  hog. 

General  Appearance  30  Per  Cent.  —  The  general  appear- 
ance of  the  fat  hog  is  determined  by  the  weight,  form,  quality, 
and  covering  of  the  animal.  The  weight  of  the  hog  will 
vary  with  age.  Record  your  estimate  of  the  weight  of  the 
hog.  If  possible,  weigh  the  hog  and  record  its  actual  weight. 
The  best  weight  at  which  to  market  the  fat  hog  varies  with 
the  demand  and  the  supply  of  the  market.  As  a  rule  fat 
hogs  weighing  from  200  to  300  pounds  are  the  most  profit- 
able for  selling. 

The  fat  hog  should  be  compactly  built,  round  ribbed, 
and  deep  chested.  Good  quality  is  indicated  by  smooth, 
fine  hair,  clean,  strong  bone,  and  a  general  appearance  of 
refinement. 

Head  and  Neck  8  Per  Cent.  —  The  head  and  neck  of  the 
fat  hog  have  very  little  commercial  value.  In  fact  this 
portion  of  the  animal  is  nearly  all  waste  to  the  butcher.  The 
head  of  the  hog,  however,  shows  character  and  feeding 
capacity.  A  broad  head  and  a  short  neck  are  desirable 
because  they  are  usually  associated  with  feeding  capacity, 
broad  back,  and  heavy  hams. 

Forequarters  12  Per  Cent.  —  The  most  important  part  of  the 


JUDGING  FAT  HOGS  271 

forequarters  of  a  fat  hog  is  the  shoulders,  which  should 
be  level  on  top,  well  packed  with  flesh,  and  broad  and  deep. 
The  breast  should  be  full,  as  this  indicates  a  vigorous  consti- 
tution. The  legs  should  be  straight,  short,  and  strong,  with 
hard,  clean  bone. 

Body  83  Per  Cent.  —  The  body  is  the  most  important  part 
of  the  animal  from  the  butcher's  standpoint,  for  it  is  this  part 
of  the  animal  that  supplies  most  of  the  dressed  meat.  The 
back  should  have  a  straight  top  line,  although  a  gradual  rise 
from  both  the  neck  and  the  tail  to  the  center  of  the  back 
usually  renders  the  animal  stronger  and  able  to  carry  more 
flesh.  The  back  should  be  broad  and  carry  its  width  well 
forward  and  back.  It  should  be  evenly  and  thickly  fleshed. 
The  underline  should  run  nearly  parallel  with  the  top  line. 

Hindquarters  17  Per  Cent.  —  The  hams  are  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  the  hindquarters.  The  ham  should  be  wide, 
plump,  full,  and  carry  down  well  to  the  hock.  The  hind  legs 
should  be  short,  strong,  and  placed  wide  apart. 


272 


LABORATORY   MANUAL   OF  AGRICULTURE 


SCORE  CARD 
JUDGING  FAT  HOGS 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

STAND- 
ARD 

POINTS  DEFICIENT 

Stu- 
dent's 
Score 

Cor- 
rected 

Score 

Stu- 
dent's 
'Score 

Cor- 
rected 
Score 

General  Appearance  —  30  per  cent 
'  Est. 

4 

i.  weight  |  A8ct-    ;;;;;;;; 

Score  according  to  age  

2.  Form,   deep,   broad,   medium    length  ; 
smooth,       compact,       symmetrical, 
standing   square   on   medium   short 
legs      

10 

3.  Quality,  hair,  smooth  and  fine  ;  bone, 
medium  size,  clean,  strong  ;   general 
appearance,  smooth  and  refined    .     . 

4.  Covering,  finished,  deep,  even,  mellow, 
free  from  lumps  and  wrinkles  .     .     . 

Head  and  Neck  —  8  per  cent 
5.  Snout,  medium  length,  not  coarse   . 
6.  Eyes,  not  sunken,  clear,  not  obscured 

6 

10 

1 

1 

7.  Face,  short;  cheeks,  full     

1 

8.  Ears,  fine,  medium  size  attached  neatly 
9.  Jowl,  full,  firm,  neat      

1 

2 

10.  Neck,  thick,  short,  smooth  to  shoulder 

Poreyuarters  —  12  per  cent 
11.  Shoulders,  broad,  deep,  smooth,  com- 

2 



8 

12.  Breast,  full,  smooth,  neat   

2 

13.  Legs,   straight,    short,    strong;    bone, 
clean,  hard  ;  pasterns,  short,  strong, 
upright  ;  feet,  medium  size      .     .     . 

Carried  forward 

2 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 
JUDGING  FAT  HOGS  —  Continued 


273 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


STAND- 
ARD 


POINTS  DEFICIENT 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Brought  forward 

Body  —  33  per  cent 

14.  Chest,  deep,  wide,  large  girth    .     .     . 

15.  Sides,    deep,    full,    smooth,    medium 

length 

16.  Back,  broad,  strongly  arched,  thickly 

and  evenly  covered _ 

17.  Loin,  wide,  thick,  strong 9 

18.  Belly,  straight,  smooth,  firm  .... 

Hindquarters  —  17  per  cent 

19.  Hips,  wide  apart,  smooth 3 

20.  Rump,  long,  level,  wide,  evenly  fleshed  3 

21.  Ham,  heavily  Seshed,  full,  firm,  deep, 

wide 9 

22.  Legs,    straight,    short,    strong;    bone, 

clean,  hard ;   pasterns,  short,  strong, 
upright ;  feet,  medium  sized    ...  2 

Total     .  100 


EXERCISE  67 
JUDGING    MUTTON    SHEEP 

Object.  — -  To  study  the  mutton  sheep  and  observe  those 
factors  that  affect  its  quality  and  worth. 

Explanation.  —  Sheep  may  be  divided  into  two  general 
types  based  upon  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  bred.  One 
type  is  bred  chiefly  for  the  production  of  mutton  and  the 
other  type  principally  for  the  production  of  wool.  For 
mutton  purposes  the  most  desirable  sheep  to  produce  is  the 
one  that  most  nearly  fills  the  market  demands.  The  sheep 
that  most  nearly  meets  the  market  demand  for  mutton  is 
the  ideal  described  in  the  accompanying  score  card. 

Equipment.  —  A  good  mutton  sheep. 

Directions.  —  Examine  the  animal  carefully  and  estimate 
the  value  of  each  point  given  in  the  accompanying  score 
card.  Have  in  mind  a  clear  understanding  of  the  ideal 
mutton  sheep.  This  may  be  gained  by  studying  photographs 
of  prize-winning  sheep  or  by  examining  prize  animals  at  fairs 
and  stock  shows.  The  standard  score  on  the  score  card  re- 
fers to  the  ideal  animal.  In  judging  each  point  record  the 
number  of  points  that  the  animal  falls  below  the  ideal.  It 
is  more  difficult  for  beginners  to  judge  sheep  than  any  other 
class  of  live  stock.  On  account  of  the  length  of  the  fleece  it 
is  difficult  to  determine  by  observation  alone  the  form  of  the 

274 


JUDGING  MUTTON  SHEEP  275 

animal.  It  is  necessary  to  handle  every  part  of  the  sheep  to 
determine  its  form.  Therefore,  sheep  judging  is  done  more 
with  the  hand  than  with  the  eye.  To  add  to  the  difficulty 
of  judging  sheep  by  outside  appearances  nearly  all  showmen 
trim  their  sheep  before  placing  them  on  exhibition.  It  is 
thus  possible  to  cover  up  any  weak  points  in  the  animal,  and 
to  make  judging  by  any  other  method  than  that  of  handling 
absolutely  impossible. 

In  handling  sheep  do  not  disturb  or  break  the  fleece.  Hold 
the  hand  flat  with  the  fingers  together  in  a  sloping  manner. 
Press  the  hand  over  the  fleece  and  feel  the  form  in  this  man- 
ner. Do  not  stick  the  fingers  into  the  fleece,  it  makes  breaks 
and  allows  both  dirt  and  water  to  enter.  When  studying 
the  length  of  wool,  place  the  two  hands,  palms  downward, 
over  the  spot  to  be  examined  and  separate  the  wool  by  slowly 
moving  the  hands  apart  while  firmly  pressing  the  wool.  This 
spreads  the  fleece  naturally  and  does  not  injure  it  in  any  way. 

The  accompanying  photographs,  Figs.  22  and  23,  show  the 
location  of  the  points  described  on  the  score  card  that  should 
be  observed  in  judging  a  mutton  sheep. 

General  Appearance  38  Per  Cent.  —  Most  mutton  sheep  are 
sold  on  the  market  while  they  are  lambs,  under  one  year  of  age. 
Lambs  weighing  in  the  neighborhood  of  eighty  pounds  usually 
sell  at  the  highest  price  on  the  market.  In  general  appear- 
ance the  mutton  sheep  should  present  a  fullness  and  smooth- 
ness of  outline  which  indicates  thick  and  evenly  distributed 
flesh.  The  animal  should  show  good  quality,  as  indicated 
by  a  clean  bone,  silky  fleece,  and  fine  pink  skin. 

Head  and  Neck  7  Per  Cent.  —  The  head  should  show  char- 
acter and  should  be  short  and  broad.  The  eyes  should  be 


FIGS.  22  and  23. — A  mutton  sheep,  showing  location  ot  parts. 


1.  Muzzle 

2.  Mouth 

3.  Nostril 

4.  Lips 

5.  Nose 

6.  Face 

7.  Forehead 

8.  Eye 


9.   Ear 

10.  Neck 

11.  Shoulder  vein 

12.  Top  of  shoulder 

13.  Shoulder 

14.  Chest 

15.  Brisket 

16.  Foreleg 


17.  Back 

18.  Loin 

19.  Hip 

20.  Ribs  or  side 

21.  Fore  flank 

22.  Belly 

23.  Flank 


24.  Rump 

25.  Leg  of  mutton 

or  thigh 

26.  Crop 

27.  Dock  or  tail 

28.  Twist 

29.  Hind  leg 


JUDGING  MUTTON  SHEEP  277 

clean,  bright,  and  placid.  The  muzzle  should  be  broad  and 
open,  indicating  feeding  capacity.  The  neck  should  be  thick, 
short,  and  set  well  into  the  shoulders. 

Forequarters  7  Per  Cent.  —  The  shoulders  should  be  com- 
pact on  top,  well  covered  with  flesh,  and  of  the  required 
smoothness  to  give  good  form.  The  brisket  should  be  neat 
and  extend  well  forward.  The  breast  should  be  wide  and 
full,  indicating  health  and  a  vigorous  constitution. 

Body  20  Per  Cent.  —  The  chest  should  be  wide,  deep,  and 
full,  and  the  ribs  well  sprung  to  give  plenty  of  room  for  the 
development  of  the  lungs,  heart,  and  digestive  system.  The 
back  should  be  broad,  straight,  of  good  length,  and  thickly 
fleshed,  and  the  loin  should  also  be  thick  and  broad,  for  in  this 
region  is  located  some  of  the  highest  priced  meat. 

Hindquarters  16  Per  Cent. — The  leg  of  mutton,  which  repre- 
sents over  40  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  mutton  carcass, 
is  located  in  the  hindquarter.  For  this  reason  a  good  de- 
velopment of  this  portion  of  the  animal  is  highly  desirable 
from  the  butcher's  standpoint.  The  rump  should  be  long, 
level,  and  wide,  thighs  full  and  deep,  twist  plump,  and  legs 
straight,  short,  and  strong. 

Wool  12  Per  Cent.  —  The  wool  should  be  of  good  length, 
dense,  and  evenly  distributed  over  all  parts  of  the  body.  A 
dense  fleece  is  desirable  because  it  produces  more  wool  and 
affords  greater  protection  to  the  sheep.  The  condition  of 
the  fleece  should  be  good.  It  should  be  well  supplied  with 
yolk  or  oil,  although  too  much  is  not  desirable.  It  should 
be  soft,  light,  and  free  from  dirt  and  trash.  The  skin  under 
the  fleece  should  have  a  bright,  pink  color.  A  bluish  tint  is 
not  desirable,  as  it  indicates  lack  of  vigor  and  health. 


278 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF   AGRICULTURE 


SCORE  CARD 

MUTTON  SHEEP 


SCALE  or  POINTS 


STAND- 
ARD 

SCORE 


POINTS  DEFICIENT 


Stu- 
dent's 

S-MM- 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Boon 


Age... 

General  Appearance  —  38  per  cent 

1.  Weight,  score  according  to  age   .     .     . 

2.  Form,  long,  level,  deep,  broad,  low  set, 

stylish      ....  .    . 


Carried  forward 


in 


in 


3.  Quality,  clean  bone;    silky  hair;    fine 

pink  skin;  light  in  offal,  yielding 
high  percentage  of  meat  .... 

4.  Condition,  deep,  even  covering  of  firm 

Besh,  especially  in  regions  of  valuable 
cuts.  Points,  indicating  ripeness,  are, 
thick  dock,  back  thickly  covered 
•with  flesh,  thick  neck,  full  purse,  full 
flank,  breast 10 

Head  and  Neck  —  7  per  cent 

5.  Muzzle,  fine;  mouth,  large;  lips,  thin; 

nostrils,  large  and  open 1 

6.  Eyes,  large,  clear,  placid 1 

7.  Face,  short,  features  clean-cut    ...  1 

8.  Forehead,  broad,  full 1 

9.  Ears,  fine,  alert 1 

10    Neck,  thick,  short,  free  from  folda     .  2 

Foreguarlers  —  7  per  cent 

11.  Shoulders,  covered  with  flesh,  compact 

on  top,  snug 5 

12.  Brisket,   neat,    proportionate;    breast, 

wide    . 


STUDENTS  NOTES  AND  REPORT  279 

MUTTON  SHEEP — Continued 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


STAND- 
ARD 
SCORE 


POINTS  DEFICIENT 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Stu- 
dent's 
Score 


Cor- 
rected 
Score 


Brought  forward 

13.  Legs,     straight,    short,     wide     apart, 

strong  ;  forearm,  full ;  shank,  smooth, 

fine 1 

Body  —  20  per  cent 

14.  Chest,  wide,  deep,  full 4 

15.  Ribs,  well  sprung,  long 

16.  Back,    broad,    straight,    long,   thickly 

fleshed 6 

17.  Loin,  thick,  broad,  long    .     . 

Hindquarters  —  16  per  cent 

18.  Hips,  far  apart,  level,  smooth    ...  2 

19.  Rump,  long,  level,  wide  to  tail-head  .     .  4 

20.  Thighs,  full,  deep,  wide 4 

21.  Twist,  plump,  deep        5 

22.  Legs,   straight,   short,    strong ;    shank, 

fine,  smooth 1 

Wool  —  12  per  cent 

23.  Quantity,  long,  dense,  even     ....  4 

24.  Quality,  fine,  pure ;  crimp,  close,  regu- 
lar, even  ....         4 

25.  Condition 4 

Total     .  100 


EXERCISES  68  AND  69 
JUDGING   A   FARM1 

Object.  —  To  study  a  farm  and  become  familiar  with  the 
factors  that  affect  its  value. 

Explanation.  —  The  farm  is  the  place  of  business  and  the 
manufacturing  plant  of  the  farmer.  The  farmer  is  a  manu- 
facturer as  truly  as  the  man  who  builds  stoves  from  iron  or 
the  man  who  produces  iron  from  the  ore.  As  the  manu- 
facturer of  stoves  uses  iron  as  raw  material  and  produces 
stoves  as  the  finished  product,  so  the  farmer  uses  the  elements 
of  nature,  and  manure  or  fertilizer,  the  plant  food  of  the 
soil,  as  raw  material,  and  from  these  produces  grain  and  hay 
as  finished  products.  He  may  carry  the  process  of  manu- 
facture one  step  farther  and  by  feeding  the  grain  and  hay  to 
cattle,  produce  beef  or  milk  as  the  finished  product.  The 
farm,  therefore,  is  a  manufacturing  plant  and  should  be  as 
well  suited  to  the  type  of  farming  that  the  farmer  wishes 
to  pursue  as  the  shop  that  the  manufacturer  builds  is  suited 
to  his  business. 

The  farm,  however,  is  more,  or  should  be  more,  than  a  man- 
ufacturing plant  merely.  It  should  furnish  a  pleasant  and 
healthful  home  for  the  farmer  and  his  family.  Thus,  in 
judging  a  farm,  both  the  advantages  of  the  place  for  the 

1  Adapted  from  G.  W.  Warren's  score  card  for  judging  farms. 

280 


JUDGING  A  FARM  281 

type  of  farming  to  be  pursued  and  the  desirability  of  the 
farm  as  a  place  to  live  must  be  considered. 

Directions.  —  Go  to  a  near-by  farm  and  make  a  thorough 
examination  of  the  place.  Keep  in  mind  the  purpose  for 
which  the  farm  is  being  used,  whether  grain  farming,  dairy- 
ing, fruit  farming,  general  farming,  etc.  Make  a  journey 
over  the  fields,  noting  their  shape,  topography,  character  of 
the  soil,  drainage,  and  condition  of  the  fences.  After  thor- 
oughly examining  the  fields,  return  to  the  farmstead  and  ob- 
serve the  improvements,  house,  barn,  orchards,  water  supply, 
etc. 

After  the  farm  has  been  thoroughly  examined  fill  in  the 
score  of  the  different  points  on  the  accompanying  score  card. 
In  scoring  designate  the  condition  of  each  point  by  marking 
with  E.,  V.G.,  G.,  F.,  P.,  V.P.,  standing  for  excellent,  very 
good,  good,  fair,  poor,  or  very  poor.  The  figures  in  the 
standard  score  give  the  relative  importance  of  the  different 
points  that  appear  on  the  score  card  for  a  farm  used  for  gen- 
eral farming.  The  distribution  of  points  would  be  differ- 
ent in  specialized  farming.  For  instance,  for  truck  farms 
all  points  that  have  to  do  with  ease  of  tillage  would  be  given 
a  higher  rating,  while  fertility  would  be  of  less  importance. 

Size  2  Per  Cent.  —  The  farm  should  not  be  too  small. 
There  are  many  farm  operations  that  require  two  or  more 
men  for  economical  work,  and  a  small  farm  requires  as  much 
machinery  as  a  larger  one.  The  fields  should  be  long  enough 
to  be  easily  tilled,  which  is  impossible  on  too  small  a  farm. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  farm  should  not  be  larger  than  it  is 
possible  to  handle  with  the  equipment  and  labor  available. 

Fields  6  Per  Cent.  —  The  fields  should  be  of  good  shape. 


282  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

If  they  must  be  fenced,  a  square  field  is  the  most  economical. 
They  should  be  of  sufficient  size  to  till  easily  and  should  be 
arranged  as  near  the  barns  or  feed  lots  as  possible. 

Topography  6  Per  Cent. —  The  farm  should  be  level  enough 
to  make  tillage  easy  and  to  prevent  loss  of  fertility  by  wash- 
ing and  the  loss  of  soil  by  erosion.  The  fields  should  be  roll- 
ing enough  to  furnish  good,  natural  drainage. 

Fertility  12  Per  Cent.—  The  soil  should  be  in  as  high  a 
state  of  natural  fertility  as  possible.  A  soil  in  a  low  state 
of  natural  fertility  cannot  be  made  productive  without  the 
extensive  use  of  expensive  fertilizers. 

Physical  Properties  of  the  Soil  12  Per  Cent. —  The  physical 
properties  of  the  soil  are  as  important  as  the  soil's  fertility. 
They  determine  the  ease  and  earliness  at  which  the  soil  can 
be  worked. 

Drainage  5  Per  Cent. —  The  soil  should  be  well  drained, 
either  naturally  or  artificially.  It  is  unprofitable  to  farm 
poorly  drained  land. 

Condition  5  Per  Cent. —  Condition  refers  to  waste  land, 
weeds,  stone,  stumps,  etc.  It  is  generally  cheaper  to  buy  a 
farm  in  good  condition  than  to  improve  one  in  this  respect. 

Climate.  —  While  not  given  a  score,  climate  should  be 
considered  in  judging  a  farm,  especially  when  topography 
or  proximity  to  water  influences  the  climate  of  different 
farms  in  the  community. 

Healthfulness  4  Per  Cent.  —  From  a  personal  standpoint 
the  healthfulness  of  the  farm  might  be  the  most  important 
fact  to  consider,  and  even  from  an  economical  standpoint  it 
is  an  important  factor. 

Location  25  Per  Cent. —  The  location  of  the  farm  is  undoubt- 


JUDGING  A  FARM  283 

edly  the  most  important  factor  influencing  its  value.  The 
distance  to  railways  and  markets  influences  greatly  the  cost 
of  producing  farm  products  and  is  the  most  important  factor 
in  determining  the  kind  of  farming  to  be  practiced  on  the 
farm.  Many  kinds  of  farming,  such  as  gardening  and  fruit 
growing,  are  possible  if  the  farm  is  located  a  great  distance 
from  markets  and  railroads.  The  labor  supply,  the  neigh- 
bors, the  conveniences,  such  as  telephone,  trolleys,  and  rural 
mail  routes,  should  be  observed  in  considering  the  location 
of  the  farm.  The  distance  to  school,  church,  grange,  etc., 
should  also  be  considered. 

Taxes  1  Per  Cent.  —  Taxes  should  be  considered,  for  some 
farms  admirably  located  near  cities  may  be  less  desirable  on 
account  of  the  high  tax  rate. 

Water  Supply  4  Per  Cent. —  Running  streams  always  add 
to  the  value  of  a  farm.  If  running  water  is  not  present,  the 
farm  should  have  good  wells. 

Improvements  18  Per  Cent.  —  The  house,  barns,  and  other 
buildings  should  be  suitable  to  the  farm.  Too  extensive 
buildings  or  too  poor  or  too  small  buildings  are  not  desirable. 
The  condition  of  the  fences  and  their  arrangement  should 
be  considered.  Good  orchards  and  vineyards  are  an  asset 
to  a  farm. 


284     *       LABORATORY   MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 
SCORE   CARD   FOR   FARMS 


NAME  or  FARM 


Poom 


STANDARD 


Size  — 

1.  Adapted  to  kind  of  farming 2 

Fields  — 

1.  Shape  and  size 3 

2.  Nearness  to  farmstead 3  6 

Topography  — 

1.  As  affecting  ease  of  cultivation 3 

2.  As  affecting  production       ....          ....  1 

3.  As  affecting  erosion  and  loss  of  fertility    ....  1.5 

4.  As  affecting  air  drainage 0.5  6 

Fertility  ~ 

1.  Natural 8 

2.  Condition 4  12 

Physical  Properties  of  the  Soil  — 

1.  As  affecting  economy  of  cultivation    1  Q 

2.  As  affecting  number  of  days  of  labor  / 

3.  As  affecting  loss  of  fertility 1 

4.  As  affecting  kinds  of  possible  crops 2  12 

Drainage  — 

1.  Natural   1 

2.  Artificial  / ' 


Condition  — 

1.  Freedom  from  stumps,  stones,  weeds,  waste  land.  etc.  5 


Climate  — 

1.  As  affecting  animal  and  plant  production 

2.  As  affecting  number  of  days  of  labor    . 


Health  fulness  — 

1.  As  an  economic  factor 


Location  — 

1.  Distance  to  market 4 

2.  Railroads 5 

3.  Local  markets 3 

4.  Shipping  facilities 2 

5.  Neighbors  as  an  economic  factor 4 

6.  Labor  supply  of  neighborhood 1 

7.  R.  F.  D.,  telephone,  trolleys,  etc 3 

8.  Churches,  school,  grange,  etc.,  as  an  economic  factor  3 


STUDENT'S   NOTES   AND   REPORT 
SCORE  CARD  FOR  FARMS  —  Continued 


285 


POINTS 


STANDARD 


STUDENT'S 
SCORE 


Taxes  — 

1.  Per  cent  on  cash  value 1 

Water  — 

1.  Running  water,  wells 4 

Improvements  — 

1.  Site  of  farmstead       1 

2.  House  as  adapted  to  needs  of  farm 6 

3.  Other  buildings 6 

4.  Fences  —  kind,  condition,  arrangement    ....  3 

5.  Timber,  orchards,  vineyards,  etc 2  18 

Total  acres, 

Acres  tillable, 

Per  cent  pasture, 

Acres,  pasture  not  tillable, 

Acres,  woods, 

Acres,  roads,  waste,  etc., 

Estimated  total  value  of 

Tillable  area, 

Pasture, 

Woods, 

Barns, 

Houses, 

Total, 

Average  value  per  acre, 

Price  asked, 

Is  the  farm  worth  the  price  asked  ?._. 


286  LABORATORY   MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

What  is  the  probable  increase  in  land  value  of  this  farm  ? 


Give  the  striking  desirable  features  of  the  farm. 


Give  the  striking  undesirable  features  of  the  farm. 


EXERCISE  70 
PLANNING    THE    HOME    FARM 

Object.  —  To  study  the  shape  and  arrangement  of  the 
fields  of  a  farm  in  order  to  suggest  ways  for  improvement. 

Explanation.  —  The  cost  of  operating  a  farm  is  greatly 
influenced  by  the  way  in  which  the  fields  are  laid  out  and 
arranged.  On  some  farms,  due  to  poor  arrangement  of  the 
fields,  it  is  often  necessary  to  haul  the  crops  produced  a  much 
greater  distance  to  the  barn  or  feed  lot  than  would  be  nec- 
essary if  the  fields  were  more  systematically  arranged.  The 
cost  of  fencing  or  cultivating  fields  poorly  shaped  and 
arranged  is  often  greater  than  would  be  necessary  with  a 
better  arrangement. 

In  laying  out  the  fields  of  a  farm  there  are  a  number  of 
factors  that  should  be  observed  : 

1.  The  fields  should  be  arranged  so  that  long  stretches  of 
land    may    be    cultivated    without    turning.     It  is  always 
cheaper  to  cultivate  long  rows  than  short  ones.     Therefore,  if 
the  farm  is  small,  the  fields  should  be  long  and  narrow. 

2.  The  roadways  to  the  fields  should  be  arranged  to  per- 
mit easy  and  direct  access  to  all  parts  of  the  farm. 

3.  The  buildings  should  be  so  located  that  the  haul  to  the 
fields  will  be  as  short  as  possible.     The  ideal  arrangement 
on  a  large  farm  is  to  have  the  buildings  centrally  located. 

287 


288  LABORATORY   MANUAL   OF   AGRICULTURE 

4.  The  fields  should  be  arranged  to  provide   for  a  good 
rotation  of  crops. 

5.  The  fields  should  be  arranged  to  reduce  the  cost  of 
fencing  to  the  minimum.     As  far  as   possible,  the  fences 
should  run  straight  and  at  right  angles  to  each  other.     A 
farm  that  has  straight  fences,  roads,  and  fields  presents  a 
neat  appearance. 

Equipment.  —  A  foot  rule  divided  into  one-sixteenth  inch 
divisions. 

Directions.  —  Make  a  drawing  showing  the  plan  of  your 
home  farm.  Show  the  arrangement  of  fields,  the  position 
of  the  barns,  feed  lots,  orchards,  etc.  If  there  are  any  wood 
lots  on  the  farm,  show  their  location  and  size  ;  show  also  the 
position  of  any  waste  lands,  streams,  etc.  Show  all  fences, 
lanes,  and  roads  on  the  place.  Indicate  on  the  map  the  crop 
that  was  on  each  field  last  year.  Indicate  also  the  crop  that 
will  be  on  the  field  next  year. 

Make  a  careful  study  of  the  arrangement  of  the  farm  to 
see  if  the  fields  could  be  more  conveniently  arranged  or 
changed  in  shape  so  that  the  expense  for  fencing  would  be 
less.  Redraw  the  plan  of  the  farm,  making  all  changes  that 
you  think  would  better  the  farm  in  any  way. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  289 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


290  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE  71 

THE    ARRANGEMENT    OF    FARM    BUILDINGS    AND 
PLANTINGS 

Object. —  To  study  the  arrangement  of  the  buildings  and 
plantings  of  a  farm. 

Explanation.  —  The  buildings  and  plantings  around  the 
farm  home  are  usually  located  in  what  is  called  the  farm- 
yard. The  farmyard  affords  a  setting  for  the  buildings, 
provides  access  to  the  highway,  well,  and  outbuildings,  and 
provides  space  for  various  kinds  of  work.  Everything  about 
the  yard  should  be  convenient,  the  grades  should  be  easy, 
the  surface  should  be  smooth  and  easy  to  mow,  the  walks 
should  be  pleasant,  and  the  drives  smooth  and  clean. 

The  plantings  around  the  farm  buildings  should  be  plain 
and  simple.  The  trees  and  shrubs,  to  look  best,  should 
not  be  set  in  rows,  but  should  be  bunched  around  the  sides 
of  the  yard  and  at  the  rear.  It  is  usually  advisable  to  have 
the  center  of  the  yard  open  to  the  front  to  afford  a  good 
view  of  the  road  from  the  house.  The  large  plantings,  such 
as  trees,  should  be  at  the  rear  of  the  buildings  and  at  the  sides 
of  the  yard,  where  they  will  furnish  shade  and  a  background 
for  the  house  without  obstructing  the  view.  Care  should  be 
taken  not  to  overcrowd  the  house  with  trees.  Shrubs  should 
be  planted  plentifully,  but  always  in  groups  or  clumps,  and 

291 


292  LABORATORY  MANUAL   OF  AGRICULTURE 

not  as  scattering  plants.  Common  shrubs  growing  wild  in 
fields  are  often  more  attractive  to  plant  than  uncommon 
shrubs  that  come  from  the  nurseries.  The  flower  gardens 
and  vegetable  gardens  should  be  at  one  side  or  in  the  rear  of 
the  house.  It  is  often  desirable  to  plant  low-growing  plants 
against  the  foundation  of  the  house. 

The  barns  and  other  outbuildings  should  be  conveniently 
located  at  one  side  or  hi  the  rear  of  the  house  and  should 
be  connected  by  as  few  walks  as  will  serve  the  needs  of  those 
using  them. 

In  general  appearance  the  place  should  look  simple,  large, 
and  generous,  and  should  have  a  free,  countrylike  appearance. 
All  parts  of  the  place,  and  especially  the  yard,  should  have 
good  care. 

Equipment.  —  A  foot  rule  with  one-sixteenth  inch  sub- 
divisions. 

Directions.  —  Make  a  drawing  of  a  farm  site,  showing  the 
size  and  location  of  the  yard,  garden,  orchard,  feed  lots,  roads, 
lawns,  etc.  Show  the  location  of  the  house,  barn,  well,  and 
all  outbuildings.  Show  the  location  of  all  trees  and  shrubs 
used  in  the  plantings  around  the  yard.  Make  a  list  of  the 
trees  and  shrubs  you  know  that  would  be  suitable  for  planting 
in  the  farmyard. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  293 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


294  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


EXERCISE  72 
THE    GEOGRAPHICAL    DISTRIBUTION    OF    CORN 

Object.  —  To  study  the  geographical  distribution  of  corn 
over  the  United  States. 

Explanation.  —  The  most  important  farm  crops  are  usually 
produced  where  the  conditions  of  environment  are  most 
favorable  to  their  growth  and  development.  The  Corn  Belt 
of  the  United  States  lies  in  the  Central  States  in  the  valleys 
of  the  Mississippi  River  and  its  tributaries.  Nearly  all  the 
states  produce  corn,  but  three  fourths  of  the  corn  crop  of  the 
United  States  is  produced  in  less  than  ten  states,  which  are 
known  as  the  Corn  Belt. 

Equipment.  —  Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture. 

Directions.  —  Record  in  tabular  form  the  total  and  acre 
yield  of  corn  for  each  state  in  the  United  States.  On  the 
accompanying  map  show  the  distribution  of  corn  by  placing 
a  star  in  each  state  for  each  10,000,000  bushels  of  corn  pro- 
duced. For  each  state  producing  less  than  10,000,000  bushels 
record  on  the  map  the  amount  produced. 


295 


296  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  297 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


298 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


EXERCISE  73 
THE    GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION    OF    WHEAT 

Object.  —  To  study  the  geographical  distribution  of  wheat 
over  the  United  States. 

Explanation.  —  Wheat  is  adapted  to  growth  in  warm, 
temperate,  and  cool  climates,  and  on  various  types  of  soils. 
Because  of  its  general  adaptation,  it  is  widely  distributed 
over  the  United  States. 

Equipment.  —  Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture. 

Directions.  —  Record  in  tabular  form  the  total  and  acre 
yield  of  wheat  for  each  state  in  the  United  States.  On  the 
accompanying  map  indicate  the  distribution  of  wheat  by 
placing  a  star  in  each  state  for  each  5,000,000  bushels  of  wheat 
produced.  For  each  state  producing  less  than  5,000,000 
bushels  record  on  the  map  the  number  of  bushels  produced. 


299 


300  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


STUDENT'S  NOTES   AND  REPORT  301 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


302 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


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EXERCISE  74 
THE    GEOGRAPHICAL    DISTRIBUTION    OF    OATS 

Object.  —  To  study  the  geographical  distribution  of  oats 
over  the  United  States. 

Explanation.  —  Oats  will  grow  in  practically  all  localities 
in  which  wheat  will  grow.  When  grown  in  the  same  districts 
with  wheat,  it  is  usually  grown  in  rotation  with  wheat  and 
other  crops.  It  reaches  its  highest  development  on  the 
better  lands  and  in  a  climate  which  is  medium,  moist,  and  cool. 
Of  ail  the  grains  it  ranks  next  to  corn  in  number'  of  bushels 
produced  in  the  United  States. 

Equipment.  —  Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture. 

Directions.  —  Record  in  tabular  form  the  total  and  acre 
yield  of  oats  for  each  state  in  the  United  States.  On  the 
accompanying  map  indicate  the  distribution  of  oats  by  placing 
a  star  in  each  state  for  each  5,000,000  bushels  of  oats  produced. 
For  each  state  producing  less  than  5,000,000  bushels  record 
on  the  map  the  amount  produced. 


303 


304  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  305 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


306 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


EXERCISE  75 

THE    GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION    OF 
POTATOES 

Object.  —  To  study  the  geographical  distribution  of 
potatoes  over  the  United  States. 

Explanation.  —  Potatoes  are  generally  grown  throughout 
the  United  States,  but  the  localities  in  which  they  develop 
best  are  restricted.  Maximum  yields  are  usually  produced 
on  a  well-drained,  sandy  loam  soil  that  contains  an  abun- 
dance of  humus. 

Equipment.  —  Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture. 

Directions.  —  Record  in  tabular  form  the  total  and  acre 
yield  of  potatoes  for  each  state  in  the  United  States.  On  the 
accompanying  map  show  the  distribution  of  potatoes  by 
placing  a  star  in  each  state  for  each  5,000,000  bushels  of 
potatoes  produced.  For  each  state  producing  less  than 
5,000,000  bushels  record  on  the  map  the  amount  produced. 


307 


308  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  309 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


310 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


EXERCISE  76 
TREE    IDENTIFICATION 

Object.  —  To  study  trees  and  become  familiar  with  their 
general  form,  method  of  branching,  shape  and  arrangement 
of  leaves,  and  character  of  bark. 

Explanation.  —  There  are  many  kinds  of  trees,  present- 
ing a  great  variety  of  shapes  and  individual  character- 
istics. The  form  of  trees  differs;  some  grow  tall  and 
slender,  while  others  are  spreading  and  grow  close  to  the 
ground.  The  number  of  branches  and  their  arrangement 
vary  greatly.  The  shape,  size,  and  arrangement  of 
leaves  are  individual  characteristics  and  may  be  used  in 
distinguishing  different  kinds  of  trees.  Botanical  classifica- 
tion is  based  largely  upon  the  method  of  reproduction,  and 
upon  the  kind  and  character  of  the  seed  vessels  and  seed 
coverings. 

Directions.  —  Go  to  the  city  park  or  a  near-by  woods  and 
make  a  list  of  as  many  trees  growing  there  as  you  can  identify. 
Select  a  typical  elm,  maple,  and  ash,  and  make  a  drawing  of 
each.  The  drawing  should  show  the  outline  form  of  the  tree 
and  the  arrangement  of  the  branches.  What  is  the  difference 
in  the  shape  of  these  trees  ?  What  is  the  principal  difference 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  branches? 

311 


312  LABORATORY  MANUAL   OF  AGRICULTURE 

Select  a  twig  one  foot  to  eighteen  inches  long  from  each  of 
these  trees  and  make  a  drawing  of  each,  showing  the  shape 
of  the  leaves  and  their  arrangement  on  the  twigs. 

Describe  the  difference  in  the  shape  of  the  leaves  and  in 
their  arrangement. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  313 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


314  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


EXERCISE  77 
STARTING   PLANTS    BY    CUTTINGS 

Object.  —  To  prepare  cuttings  for  setting  in  pots  and  in 
the  nursery. 

Explanation.  —  A  cutting  is  a  small  portion  of  a  plant  re- 
moved from  the  parent  and  placed  under  proper  conditions 
for  favorable  growth.  Cuttings  may  be  made  from  many 
hard  wood  and  herbaceous  plants.  Wood  cuttings  should  be 
collected  in  the  fall  and  stored  in  a  cellar  during  the  winter, 
where  they  will  partly  heal  over.  Herbaceous  cuttings  may 
be  taken  directly  from  the  green  plant  and  placed  in  the 
starting  box. 

Equipment.  —  1.  Twigs  of  grape  and  willow  or  cotton- 
wood  which  have  been  stored  in  the  cellar  during  the  winter. 

2.  Plants  of  geranium  or  wandering  jew. 

3.  A  starting  box  two  by  three  feet,  one  foot  deep. 
Directions.  —  Fill  the  starting  box  with  sand  and  wet  it 

thoroughly.  Use  the  twigs  or  branches  of  grapevines  and 
willow  or  cottonwood  that  were  collected  and  stored  in 
Ex.  15.  Remove  all  but  two  buds  on  the  top  part  of  the 
plant.  Make  holes  in  the  sand  with  a  sharp  stick  or  lead 
pencil  about  three  inches  apart.  Insert  the  twigs  in  the 
holes  and  press  the  sand  firmly  about  them. 

Obtain  small  slips  or  branches  of  the  geranium  or  wandering 

315 


316  LABORATORY  MANUAL   OF  AGRICULTURE 

jew.  They  should  be  from  one  to  three  inches  long.  Re- 
move some  of  the  leaves.  This  will  reduce  the  amount  of 
moisture  lost  by  transpiration  while  the  roots  are  becoming 
established.  Place  the  slip  in  the  sand  one  to  two  inches 
deep,  as  in  the  case  of  the  wood  cuttings.  If  possible,  the 
bottom  of  the  box  should  be  kept  at  a  higher  temperature 
than  the  air  above.  Keep  the  sand  well  watered.  The  hard 
wood  cuttings  may  be  transferred  to  the  nursery  and  the 
herbaceous  plants  to  pots  after  their  root  systems  are  estab- 
lished. 


EXERCISE  78 
POTTING   PLANTS 

Object.  —  To  study  and  practice  methods  of  potting 
plants. 

Explanation.  —  Small  seedlings  or  cuttings  are  often  potted 
in  the  greenhouse  previous  to  setting  in  the  soil  out  of  doors. 
Flowering  plants  and  ferns  are  often  left  in  the  pot  for  an 
indefinite  length  of  time.  The  process  of  potting  a  plant  is 
quite  simple,  and  can  be  properly  accomplished  with  a  little 
thought  and  practice.  The  plant  should  be  well  placed  in 
the  center  of  the  pot  neither  too  deep  nor  too  high.  The 
size  of  the  pot  should  correspond  to  the  size  of  the  plant. 
When  the  plant  becomes  too  large  for  the  pot,  it  should  be  re- 
potted. The  bottom  of  the  pot  should  be  open  to  allow 
drainage,  and  the  soil  should  contain  sufficient  fine  gravel 
and  sand  to  insure  perfect  drainage. 

Equipment.  —  1.  Ten  three-inch  flower  pots. 

2.  Ten  geranium  plants  four  weeks  old,  from  cuttings. 

3.  A  loam  soil. 

4.  Small  amounts  of  gravel  and  sand. 

Directions.  —  Prepare  the  soil  for  potting  by  mixing  to- 
gether three  parts  of  loam,  one  part  of  thoroughly  rotted 
manure,  and  one  part  of  sand.  Fill  the  pot  with  gravel  to  a 
depth  of  one  half  inch.  Sprinkle  over  the  gravel  a  sufficient 

317 


318  LABORATORY   MANUAL   OF  AGRICULTURE 

depth  of  the  prepared  soil  so  that  the  plant  will  have  the  proper 
position  in  the  pot  when  its  roots  just  touch  the  soil.  Re- 
move a  plant  from  the  starting  box  and  place  it  in  position 
in  the  pot.  Spread  the  roots  of  the  plant  out  well  and 
sprinkle  prepared  soil  between  them.  Press  the  soil  firmly 
about  the  roots  and  stem.  Fill  the  pot  with  soil  to  within 
one  half  inch  of  the  top.  Add  water  slowly  until  it  starts  to 
run  from  the  drain  at  the  bottom  of  the  pot.  Place  the  pot 
in  the  laboratory  window  or  in  some  other  convenient  place 
where  it  will  have  sufficient  light  and  heat  for  growth. 
Water  the  plant  at  frequent  intervals  to  keep  it  in  good 
growing  condition.  Pot  each  plant  in  a  similar  manner. 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  319 

STUDENT'S   NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE  79 
THE    DAIRY   HERD    RECORD  l 

Object. —  To  keep  a  record  of  the  production  of  milk 
and  butter  fat  of  a  herd  of  dairy  cows. 

Explanation.  —  It  is  impossible  to  determine  the  value  of  a 
dairy  cow  for  milk  or  butter  fat  production  without  keeping 
a  record  of  her  products.  The  products  of  the  dairy  cow  are 
usually  sold  from  the  farm  in  one  of  the  following  ways : 
first,  as  milk,  either  retail  or  wholesale ;  second,  as  cream 
to  creameries  or  to  retail  trade ;  third,  as  butter  sold  direct 
from  the  farm.  In  keeping  records  of  the  cows  the  dis- 
position made  of  the  milk  should  be  considered  and  the  prof- 
its figured  on  these  terms.  When  whole  milk  is  sold,  the 
milk  record  of  each  cow  should  be  kept.  When  the  milk 
is  separated  and  the  cream  sold  on  the  butter-fat  basis,  a 
record  should  be  kept  of  the  pounds  of  butter  fat  produced 
by  each  cow.  When  the  butter  is  sold  direct  from  the  farm, 
it  is  equally  important  to  know  the  record  of  each  cow. 

Equipment.  —  Spring  balance  scales  weighing  to  one  fourth 
pound. 

Directions.  —  Let  each  student  who  can  do  so  keep  a  rec- 
ord of  the  dairy  cows  on  his  home  farm  for  one  month. 

1  Adapted  from  O.  E.  Reed,  A  Dairy  Primer,  Chapters  in  Ele- 
ments of  Agriculture,  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College,  Man- 
hattan, Kansas. 

320 


THE  DAIRY  HERD  RECORD  321 

Rule  a  sheet  of  paper  as  the  accompanying  milk  record  sheet 
in  "  Student's  Notes  and  Report " l  is  ruled.  Tack  the  milk 
record  sheet  on  the  wall  in  the  barn,  near  the  cows.  Sus- 
pend the  pair  of  spring  balance  scales  from  the  ceiling  near 
the  milk  sheet.  Fasten  a  lead  pencil  to  a  spring  and  attach 
it  to  the  wall  near  the  milk  sheet.  Keep  a  record  of  the 
milk  of  each  cow  for  one  month.  (To  determine  the  value 
of  a  cow  for  milk  production,  a  complete  record  must  be  kept 
of  the  milk  produced  from  the  time  she  freshens  until  she  is 
dry.)  A  test  of  each  cow's  milk  for  butter  fat  should  be 
made  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  month.  To  secure  a 
sample  of  the  milk  for  testing,  take  a  small  quantity  (about 
three  tablespoonfuls)  of  the  milk  of  each  cow  from  each 
milking  for  two  days.  The  milk  should  be  thoroughly  mixed 
before  sampling.  Place  the  milk  from  each  cow  in  a  sepa- 
rate bottle  and  label.  Test  each  sample  for  butter  fat  by 
means  of  the  Babcock  test  (Ex.  52). 

Figure  up  the  total  amount  of  milk  given  by  each  cow 
during  the  month.  Determine  the  value  of  the  milk  sold 
from  each  cow  during  the  month.  If  whole  milk  is  sold,  figure 
the  value  in  pounds  or  gallons.  A  gallon  of  milk  weighs 
8.66  pounds.  If  cream  is  sold,  figure  the  value  of  the  butter 
fat  from  each  cow.  Get  the  market  price  of  whole  milk  and 
the  market  price  of  butter  fat  in  your  community  and  figure 
in  which  way  it  would  be  the  most  profitable  to  sell  your 
milk. 

1  A  milk  record  sheet  can  undoubtedly  be  obtained  without  cost 
from  your  State  Agricultural  College  or  Experiment  Station. 


322 


LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 
MILK  RECORD  SHEET 

MILK  RECORD  FOR  THE  MONTH  ENDING... 


.191 


DAT 

TIMD 

NAME  OR  NUMBER  OF  Cows 

1 

A.M. 
P.M. 

2 

A  M. 
P.  If. 

3 

A.M. 
P.M. 

4 

A.M. 
P.M. 

5 

A.M. 
P.M. 

6 

A.M. 
P.M. 

7 

A.M. 
P.M. 

8 

A.M. 
P.M. 

9 

A.M. 
P.M. 

10 

A.M. 
P.M. 

11 

A.M. 
P.M. 

12 

A.M. 
P.M. 

13 

A.M. 
P.M. 

14 

A.M. 
P.M. 

15 

A.M. 
P.M. 

16 

A.M. 

P.M. 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT 


323 


MILK  RECORD 


MILK  RECORD  SHEET  —  Continued 

FOR  THE  MONTH  ENDING.  . .  . .  191 


DAY 

TIME 

NAME  OR  NUMBER  OF  Cows 

17 

A.M. 
P.M. 

18 

A.M. 
P.M. 

19 
20 

A.M. 
P.M. 

A.M. 

P.M. 

21 

A.M. 
P.M. 

22 

A.M. 

P.M. 

23 

A.M. 
P.M. 

— 

24 

A.M. 
P.M. 

25 

A.M. 
P.M. 

26 

A.M. 
P.M. 

27 

A.M. 
P.M. 

28 

A.M. 
P.M. 

29 

A.M. 
P.M. 

30 

A.M. 
P.M. 

31 

A.M. 
P.M. 

Total 
Milk 

Per  cent 
Butter  fat 

Total 
Butter  fat 

324  LABORATORY  MANUAL   OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE  80 
A    STUDY    OF   THE   EGG1 

Object.  —  To  study  the  egg  and  become  familiar  with  its 
parts. 

Explanation.  —  In  structure  the  egg  consists  of  three 
principal  parts :  the  shell,  white,  and  yolk.  The  eggshell  is 
a  structure  composed  principally  of  lime  for  the  purpose  of 
protecting  the  egg.  Just  under  the  shell  are  two  thin,  tough 
membranes  that  serve  further  to  protect  the  egg  and  prevent 
its  drying  out  too  rapidly.  Near  the  larger  end  of  the  egg 
is  usually  found  an  air  space.  This  air  space  is  compara- 
tively small  when  the  egg  is  fresh,  but  becomes  larger  as  the 
egg  grows  older,  due  to  the  drying  out  and  shrinking  of  the 
white  and  yolk  of  the  egg.  The  size  of  the  air  space  serves  as 
a  means  of  determining  the  age  of  the  egg.  The  air  space 
is  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  a  ready  supply  of  fresh  air  to 
the  young  developing  chick.  The  air  space  lies  between 
the  outer  and  inner  membranes. 

The  white  of  the  egg  consists  of  three  important  parts : 
the  outer,  thicker  albumen ;  the  inner,  thinner  albumen ;  and 
the  chalaza.  The  albumen  supplies  in  liquid  form  the  food 
by  which  the  chick  grows  within  the  shell.  The  chalaza 
consists  of  white  cords  of  denser  albumen  that  adhere  to  the 

1  Adapted  from  J.  E.  Rice  in  the  Cornell  Rural  School  Leaflet, 
Vol.  I,  No.  2. 

325 


LABORATORY  MANUAL   OF   AGRICULTURE 


side  of  the  yolk  toward  either  end.     These  cords  serve  to 
keep  the  yolk  suspended  properly  within  the  albumen. 

The  yolk  of  the  egg  consists  of  three  parts :  the  germ  spot, 
light  yolk,  and  dark  yolk.  The  germ  spot  appears  as  a 
light-colored  spot  usually  found  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
yolk.  It  is  from  this  germ  that  the  young  chick  develops. 

There  is  a  tendency 
for  the  yolk  to  float 
at  the  surface  of  the 
egg.  It  is  therefore 
necessary  to  turn  fre- 
quently eggs  that  are 
to  be  used  for  hatching. 
If  the  egg  is  not  turned 
frequently,  the  yolk 
will  rise  until  the  germ 
comes  in  contact  with 
the  shell  membrane. 
It  will  then  become 
dry  by  evaporation  and  adhere  to  the  membrane.  If  the 
egg  is  then  turned,  the  germ  will  be  killed.  Figure  28  shows 
a  cross  section  of  an  egg. 

Equipment.  —  1.  Two  eggs,  one  light  and  one  dark,  for 
each  member  of  the  class. 

2.  Two  saucers  for  each  member  of  the  class. 

3.  A  sauce  pan. 

4.  Some  means  of  boiling  an  egg.1 

5.  A  knife. 


FIG.  28.  —  Sections  of  an  egg.     1,  germ  spot; 
2,  light  yolk ;    3,   dark  yolk ;    4,   chalaza ; 

5,  the    inner,   thinner  white  or   albumen ; 

6,  the  outer,   thicker  white    or    albumen ; 

7,  inner  membrane ;    8,  air  space ;   9,  outer 
membrane ;  10,  shell. 


1  If  the  eggs  cannot  be  boiled  at  school,  have  each  student  bring 
a  boiled  egg  from  home. 


A  STUDY  OF  THE  EGG  327 

6.  An  egg  tester  which  may  be  made  from  a  box  large 
enough  to  hold  a  small  lighted  lamp.  In  the  box  opposite 
the  lamp  cut  a  hole  slightly  smaller  than  the  egg. 

Directions.  —  Examine  several  eggs  in  the  egg  tester  by 
holding  them  in  the  hole  of  the  egg  tester  and  looking  through 
the  egg  toward  the  light.  The  egg  tester  must  be.  used  in  a 
darkened  room.  Observe  the  size  of  the  air  space.  The 
size  of  the  air  space  gives  some  indication  of  the  age  of  the 
egg.  A  spoiled  egg  does  not  look  clear  and  distinct  as  a 
fresh  egg  does. 

Break  a  fresh,  uncooked  egg  in  a  saucer  by  separating  the 
shell  in  the  middle.  Observe  the  germ  on  the  upper  surface 
of  the  yolk.  Note  the  chalaza  and  the  transparent  watery 
appearance  of  the  albumen.  Examine  the  shell  and  observe 
the  air  space  and  the  two  outer  membranes  best  seen  at  the 
air  space.  Note  the  pigment  of  the  shell  which  gives  the 
egg  its  color. 

Boil  an  egg  hard.  Crack  the  large  end  of  the  egg  and  re- 
move the  shell  piece  by  piece.  Observe  the  air  space  and  the 
two  outer  membranes.  Cut  the  egg  lengthwise  and  make  a 
drawing  of  the  longitudinal  section  showing: 

1.  The  air  space. 

2.  The  two  outer  membranes. 

3.  The  three  layers  of  the  white. 

4.  The  white  yolk  and  the  dark  yolk. 

5.  The  germ. 


;>-JS  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  329 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


EXERCISE  81 


A    STUDY    OF    THE    RICE    HEAD 

Object.  —  To  examine  the  head  of  rice  and  become  famil- 
iar with  the  shape  and 
arrangement  of  its  dif- 
ferent parts. 

Explanation.  -  The 
head  of  rice  is  com- 
monly called  a  panicle. 
It  is  composed  of  a 
branching  stem  with 
spikelets  attached. 
Each  spikelet  contains 
but  one  kernel.  The 
kernel  is  inclosed  within 
a  flowering  glume  on 
one  side  and  the  palea 
on  the  other.  The 
flowering  glume  incloses 
about  two  thirds  of 
the  kernel.  The  outer 
glumes  in  rice  do  not 

Fio.  29-^    a  head  of  rice;    B    a  single    coyer       the       flowering 
spikelet ;  C,  the  kernel  of  nee  with  glumes 
and  palea  removed.  glumes,    but    are    small 

330 


A  STUDY  OF  THE  RICE  HEAD  331 

projections  at  the  base  of  the  kernel.  The  kernel  is  flat- 
oval  in  shape  with  lines  or  small  depressions  running  from 
top  to  bottom.  The  spikelets  are  placed  singly  at  various 
intervals  along  the  branches.  Figure  29  shows  the  rice  head. 

Equipment.  —  Heads  of  rice  for  each  member  of  the 
class. 

Directions.  —  Make  a  drawing  of  the  entire  head  of  rice. 
Remove  a  spikelet  and  make  a  drawing  of  it.  Draw  the 
outer  glumes ;  a  single  flowering  glume ;  and  the  palea. 
Make  a  drawing  of  the  kernel  showing  the  broad  or  side 
view,  one  showing  the  germ  side,  and  one  showing  the  cross 
section.  Make  all  drawings  at  least  four  times  natural 
size,  except  the  one  of  the  panicle.  Make  them  in  careful 
detail  and  show  all  the  different  parts. 


332  LABORATORY   MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 

STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND   REPORT 


STUDENT'S  NOTES  AND  REPORT  333 

STUDENT'S  NOTES   AND    REPORT 


EXERCISE  82 
TREE    PLANTING 

Object.  —  To  observe  the  conditions  which  are  necessary 
for  the  successful  transplanting  of  trees  and  shrubs. 

Explanation.  —  Trees  are  usually  started  in  the  nursery, 
where  at  small  cost  special  attention  may  be  given  them 
during  their  early  development.  Desirable  shade  trees  often 
may  be  obtained  along  the  creek  bank  or  in  the  wood  lot. 
Small  trees  may  be  safely  transplanted  after  they  have  made 
two  or  three  years'  successful  growth  in  the  nursery.  Trees 
may  be  reset  either  in  the  fall  or  in  the  spring.  Spring 
planting  is  usually  more  successful.  They  should  be  trans- 
planted when  they  are  in  a  dormant  stage  just  before  the 
buds  begin  to  swell. 

There  are  three  distinct  steps  in  tree  transplanting.  They 
are :  removing  the  tree  from  the  soil,  preparing  the  tree  for 
resetting  and  transferring  it  to  its  new  location,  and  replacing 
it  in  the  soil. 

In  removing  the  tree  from  the  soil  care  should  be  taken  not 
to  injure  the  roots.  In  preparing  it  for  transplanting,  the 
top  should  be  cut  back.  This  will  reduce  the  leaf  surface 
and  amount  of  transpiration  as  the  plant  begins  to  grow. 
If  this  is  not  done,  the  tree  may  be  stunted  or  perhaps  may 
even  die  while  the  root  system  is  becoming  established.  All 

334 


TREE  PLANTING  335 

injured  limbs  or  injured  roots  should  be  removed  with  a  sharp 
knife.  The  roots  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  dry 
through  exposure  to  the  sun  during  the  transfer  to  the  new 
location. 

The  hole  for  resetting  must  be  sufficiently  large  to  accom- 
modate the  roots  without  crowding  them.  After  the  tree 
has  been  properly  adjusted  in  its  new  location,  loose  soil 
should  be  worked  in  carefully  about  its  roots.  The  soil  should 
be  compacted  about  the  roots  so  that  they  will  more  readily 
s+art.  The  soil  on  the  surface  should  be  left  loose  to  serve 
as  a  mulch. 

Equipment.  —  A  good  shade  tree. 

2.  Spade. 

3.  Pruning  knife. ' 

Directions.  -7-  Select  a  desirable  tree  from  the  nursery  or 
wood  lot.  It  is  best  to  use  a  tree  two  or  three  years  old. 
Dig  around  it  and  remove  it  from  the  soil,  injuring  as  few 
roots  as  possible.  Keep  the  roots  covered  while  transferring 
it  to  its  new  location.  Cut  the  top  back  and  remove  all  un- 
desirable branches.  Dig  a  hole  sufficiently  large  to  accom- 
modate all  the  roots.  Adjust  the  tree  properly  and  fill  in 
between  the  roots  with  loose  soil.  Compact  the  soil  firmly 
about  the  roots.  Water  the  tree  when  you  have  the  hole 
about  two  thirds  full  of  dirt.  Fill  the  hole  level  to  the  top 
with  loose  soil. 


LABORATORY   MANUAL  OF  AGRICULTURE 
STUDENT'S   NOTES  AND   REPORT 


APPENDIX 

SECTION    I 
EQUIPMENT1 

AMOUNT  NECESSARY  FOR  A  CLASS  OF  TEN  STUDENTS 

1  Babcock  testing  outfit  (c). 

1  balance,  torsion,  weighing  to  fa  gram  (&). 

1  balance,  spring  (a). 

1  basket,  \  bushel  (a). 

6  beakers,  500  c.c.  (6). 

1  burner,  alcohol  or  gas  (6). 

1  crock,  4-gallon  (a). 

2  crocks,  2-gallon  (a). 

1  The  letter  in  parenthesis  following  the  items  of  equipment  refers 
to  the  place  where  the  equipment  may  be  secured : 

(a)  Local  dealer.  (6)  Chemical  Supply  Houses,  (c)  Creamery 
Package  Manufacturing  Co.,  Chicago,  111.  (d)  Central  Scientific 
Co.,  Chicago,  111.  (e)  The  authors  of  this  Manual  will  supply  a 
limited  number  of  sets  of  type  samples  of  grain  for  secondary  school 
work  at  a  price  sufficient  to  cover  cost  of  material  and  packing. 
(See  suggestions  to  teachers.)  (/)  Bausch  &  Lomb  Optical  Co., 
Rochester,  N.Y.  (g)  E.  and  T.  Fairbanks  &  Co.,  St.  Johnsbury, 
Vt.  (h)  Apple  seedlings  can  usually  be  purchased  in  lots  of  100 
from  nurseries  at  very  small  cost. 

NOTE.  —  The  following  are  a  few  reliable  chemical  supply  houses  : 
E.  H.  Sargent  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111. ;  Bausch  &  Lomb  Optical  Co., 
Rochester,  N.Y. ;  Eimer  &  Amend,  New  York  City,  N.Y. 
z  337 


338  APPENDIX 

4  cylinders,  evaporation  (d). 

6  cylinders,  percolation,  with  rack  and  supply  tank  (d). 

1  cylinder,  graduated  100  c.c.  (6). 
10  forceps  (6). 

4  glass  plates,  3  inches  square  (a). 

1  grain,  set  of  type  samples  of  (e). 

1  knife,  long-bladed  (a). 

6  jars,  Mason,  1  quart  (a). 
10  lenses,  hand  (a). 

1  microscope,  magnifying  to  low  power  (/). 

6  microscope  slides  (/). 

1  oilcloth,  18  inches  square  (a). 

1  pan,  galvanized  iron  5  X  14  inches,  3  inches  deep  (a). 
12  pans,  tin,  6  inches  in  diameter  (pie  pans)  (a). 

50  plates,  paper  (a). 

2  pots,  flower,  6  inches  in  diameter  (a). 

10  pots,  flower,  3  inches  in  diameter  (a). 
1  pruning  shears  (a). 

1  pruning  saw  (a). 
1  pruning  knife  (a). 
1  rule,  foot,  division  ^  inch  (a). 
1  sieve,  for  sifting  soil,  12  meshes  to  inch  (a). 
1  saucepan,  2  quarts  (a). 
20  saucers  (a). 

1  scales,  weighing  100  lb.,  accurate  to  \  pound  (a). 
1  shears  (a). 

1  soil  auger,  3  feet  in  length  (a). 
1  string,  ball  (a). 
1  tape  line,  100  feet  in  length  (a). 
4  test  tubes,  large  size  (6). 

11  thermometers,  chemical  (6). 

4  tubes,  glass,  3  feet  long,  1  inch  in  diameter  (6). 

6  wash  pans  (a). 

1  weigh t-per-bushel  tester  (g). 


APPENDIX  339 


SUPPLIES 

The  most  of  which  can  be  provided  by  the  teacher  or  secured 
at  a  small  cost. 

100  apple  seedlings,  one  year  old  (h). 
2  boxes  2x3  feet  and  1  foot  deep  (starting  boxes). 
1  box,  large,  for  storing  cutting  and  grafting  material. 
1  pound  beeswax. 
5  yards  cheese  cloth. 
30  grams  copper  sulphate. 

1  corn  tester,  for  germinating  seed  corn. 
24  eggs. 

1  egg  tester,  for  candling  eggs. 
Grain  in  the  following  amounts : 
1  pound  alfalfa  seed. 
4  pounds  beans. 
Barley  — 

4  ten-pound  lots  of  different  samples  of  barley. 
1  bundle  of  barley  heads. 
1  pound  clover  seed. 

1  pound  sweet  corn. 
Field  corn  — 

12  ten-ear  samples. 

4  ten-pound  lots  of  different  samples  of  shelled  corn. 
\  bushel  of  shelled  corn. 
Cowpeas  — 

2  six-pound  lots  of  different  samples. 

1  pound  grass  seed  (timothy,  orchard  grass,  or  redtop). 
Oats  — 

4  ten-pound  lots  of  different  samples  of  oats. 

^  bushel  of  oats. 

A  bundle  of  oat  heads. 
Rye  — 

4  ten-pound  lots  of  different  samples  of  rye. 

A  bundle  of  rye  heads. 
Sorghum  — 

4  ten-pound  lots  of  different  samples  of  sorghum. 

Heads  of  milo,  kafir,  and  sweet  sorghum. 


340  APPENDIX 

Wheat— 

4  ten-pound  samples  of  different  lots  of  wheat. 
A  bundle  of  wheat  heads 
1  bushel  of  uncleaned  wheat. 
2  pints  milk,  different  samples. 
1  plant,  geranium  to  use  for  cuttings. 
1  bushel  sand  for  germination. 
Soil.  —  Three  bushels  each  of  the  following  kinds  of  air-dry  soil : 

gravel,  sand,  loam,  and  clay. 
1  tube  rack  for  holding  capillary  soil  tubes. 
18  inches  rubber  tubing,  \  inch  inside  diameter. 


APPENDIX 

SECTION   II 
SUGGESTIONS    TO    TEACHERS 

The  laboratory  work  of  this  manual  is  outlined  to  meet  the  needs 
of  secondary  schools  giving  a  year's  instructional  work  in  agri- 
culture. It  is  impossible  to  give  satisfactory  instruction  in  agri- 
culture without  practical  demonstrations,  which  can  only  be  given 
in  the  field  and  laboratory.  In  planning  this  laboratory  manual 
the  authors  have  assumed  that  five  periods  a  week  will  be  devoted 
to  the  subject  of  agriculture :  three  to  be  used  for  classroom  and 
lecture  work  and  two  periods  of  one  and  one  half  or  two  hours' 
duration  to  be  spent  in  the  laboratory  and  field.  Since  it  is  occa- 
sionally necessary  to  make  short  trips  and  excursions  during  the 
laboratory  period,  it  will  be  found  most  satisfactory  to  devote  the 
last  periods  in  the  afternoon  to  this  work.  If  this  is  done,  it  will 
be  possible  to  make  longer  trips  than  could  be  made  if  the  work 
occurred  at  some  other  time  of  the  day. 

Suggestions  concerning  Equipment.  —  The  list  of  equipment 
given  in  Section  1  of  the  Appendix  gives  in  detail  all  apparatus 
and  supplies  required  to  carry  out  successfully  the  exercises  given 
in  the  manual.  Very  few  schools  will  find  it  necessary  to  purchase 
this  entire  list  of  equipment,  for  most  schools  are  well  equipped  to 
teach  laboratory  work  in  botany,  chemistry,  and  physics.  Ordi- 
narily the  same  microscope,  balances,  scales,  and  much  of  the  glass- 
ware that  are  used  for  botany,  chemistry,  and  physics  may  also 
be  used  in  agriculture,  to  avoid  the  expense  of  duplication. 

Soils.  —  There  are  a  number  of  exercises  in  soils  that  demand 
special  equipment.  It  is  to  the  best  interest  of  the  work  to  provide 
this  equipment  when  possible.  Where  funds  are  limited,  less  ex- 

341 


342  APPENDIX 

pensive  equipment  may  be  substituted.  Student  lamp  chimneys 
may  be  used  to  replace  glass  tubes  in  Ex.  8  and  14.  Tin  cans 
with  perforated  bottoms  may  be  used  to  replace  the  percolator 
equipment  in  Ex.  9.  The  same  cans  may  also  be  used  in  Ex. 
11.  Solid-bottom  quart  tin  cans  may  be  used  to  replace  the 
equipment  called  for  in  Ex.  10.  In  Ex.  13  four-gallon  crocks  may 
be  used  to  replace  the  soil  cylinders.  If  crocks  are  used  to  replace 
the  evaporation  cylinders,  the  soil  must  be  saturated  with  water  by 
applying  water  at  the  top  before  the  mulches  are  added. 

Four  types  of  soil  are  needed  in  the  laboratory  :  gravel,  sand, 
loam,  and  clay.  The  gravel  and  sand  may  be  obtained  along 
streams,  or  if  no  stream  is  convenient,  it  can  be  secured  as  concrete 
sand  from  local  lumber  dealers.  The  concrete  sand  should  be  sifted 
through  a  sieve  twelve  meshes  to  the  linear  inch.  The  coarser 
material  will  furnish  gravel  and  the  finer  material  sand.  Loam 
and  clay  can  usually  be  obtained  near  the  school.  All  the  soils 
should  be  thoroughly  air  dry,  pulverized,  and  sifted  before  they 
are  used. 

Crops.  —  The  laboratory  exercises  in  crops  require  head  samples 
and  seeds  of  a  number  of  the  common  cereals  and  legumes.  It  will 
be  necessary  for  the  instructor  to  secure  samples  of  heads  of  the 
grains  to  be  studied.  This  can  best  be  done  by  collecting  the  ma- 
terial in  the  field.  If  field  samples  have  not  been  secured,  it 
may  be  possible  to  obtain  them  from  stacks  or  barns  where  this 
material  has  been  stored.  Samples  of  threshed  and  shelled  grain 
may  be  obtained  from  local  mills  and  elevators.  Some  of  the  more 
uncommon  grains  and  seeds  can  be  secured  from  seed  houses. 

Type  Samples.  —  It  is  impossible  successfully  to  study  types 
and  classes  of  grain  without  using  a  standard  for  comparison. 
It  may  be  possible  for  schools  to  obtain  type  samples  of  grains  from 
their  state  agricultural  experiment  stations.  The  authors  of  this 
manual,  realizing  the  difficulty  that  many  schools  will  have  in  obtain- 
ing suitable  type  samples,  have  arranged  to  supply  this  material 
at  a  cost  of  50  cents  per  case  of  six  samples  or  $3.50  for  an  entire 
set  of  48  samples.  (This  price  does  not  include  postage  or  express.) 
These  samples  will  be  put  up  in  glass-front  cases,  properly  labeled, 
and  will  include  type  samples  of  wheat,  oats,  rye,  barley,  legumes, 
and  grass  seeds. 


APPENDIX  343 

Farm  Machinery.  —  A  number  of  farm  implements  will  be  used 
as  equipment  in  the  exercises  of  this  manual.  This  machinery 
can  be  borrowed  from  local  implement  dealers.  If  it  is  not  con- 
venient to  bring  this  machinery  to  the  school  grounds  or  laboratory, 
the  class  should  be  taken  to  the  implement  house  for  the  work. 
If  there  are  several  implement  dealers  in  the  town,  the  class  should 
be  taken  to  the  different  dealers  for  the  different  exercises. 

Live  Stock.  —  A  very  limited  amount  of  work  on  live  stock  is 
outlined  in  the  manual.  Where  live  stock  is  of  special  interest, 
more  time  should  be  devoted  to  this  phase  of  the  work.  In  com- 
munities where  dairying  is  important  several  exercises  should  be 
devoted  to  judging  dairy  cattle.  The  animals  used  for  class  judg- 
ing can  undoubtedly  be  secured  from  farmers  or  live-stock  owners 
in  the  community.  Good  live  stock  for  school  purposes  can  be 
obtained  in  nearly  every  place. 

Field  Lessons.  —  Field  lessons  can  be  made  the  most  valuable 
part  of  the  work  in  agriculture,  but  to  accomplish  this  the  instructor 
must  carefully  plan  the  work.  The  instructor  must  be  familiar 
with  everything  to  be  observed  and  studied  on  the  trip.  In  Ex. 
68  and  69,  on  judging  a  farm,  the  farm  chosen  for  the  field  trip  should 
be  located  as  near  the  school  as  possible.  The  first  day  should  be 
spent  studying  the  farm  in  the  field  and  the  second  day  used  in 
discussing  the  good  and  poor  points  of  the  farm  and  completing 
the  score  card. 

Home  Garden.  —  For  the  exercise  on  the  home  garden,  Ex.  49 
and  50,  the  first  day  should  be  devoted  to  drawing  the  plan  of 
the  garden,  spacing  and  arranging  the  crops.  The  second  day 
should  be  used  to  figure  the  area  devoted  to  each  crop  and  the  cost 
for  seed  as  determined  by  prices  secured  from  seed  dealers. 

Extra  Exercises.  —  A  few  more  exercises  appear  in  the  manual 
than  it  is  possible  to  give  in  a  year's  work  in  agriculture.  This 
will  allow  some  choice  of  exercises  by  the  instructor.  "Where 
equipment  is  not  available  to  perform  a  regular  exercise,  an  extra 
exercise  may  be  substituted.  Of  the  extra  exercises  76  is  adapted- 
for  the  fall,  while  77  and  78  are  suited  for  spring.  Where  Ex.  78 
is  used,  it  should  follow  one  month  after  Ex.  77. 

A  Final  Word  to  the  Teacher.  —  Nearly  every  exercise  in  this 
manual  is  of  such  length  that  all  the  time  possible  for  the  laboratory 


344  APPENDIX 

period  will  be  required  to  complete  the  work  successfully.  It  will, 
therefore,  be  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  have  all  material  at  hand 
to  start  the  work  promptly  at  the  beginning  of  the  period.  The 
instructor  should  plan  for  each  laboratory  period  far  in  advance. 
This  is  absolutely  necessary  in  the  case  of  Ex.  16, 17,  18,  58,  and  59, 
for  which  material  must  be  prepared  four  weeks  in  advance  of  the 
class  period. 


E  following  pages  contain  advertisements  of  a 
few  of  the  Macmillan  books  on  kindred  subjects 


Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture 

EDITED  BY  L.   H.   BAILEY 

Director  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  and  Professor  of  Rural  Economy, 
Cornell  University. 

With  IOO  full-page  plates  and  more  than  2OOO  illus* 
trations  in  the  text;  four  -volumes;  the  set,  $20.00  net; 
half  morocco,  $32.00  net;  carriage  extra 

VOLUME  I  —  Farms         VOLUME  III  —  Animals 

VOLUME  II  —  Crops       VOLUME  IV  —  The  Farm  and  the  Community 

"Indispensable  to  public  and  reference  libraries  .  .  .  readily  compre- 
hensible to  any  person  of  average  education."  —  The  Nation. 
"The  completes!  existing  thesaurus  of  up-to-date  facts  and  opinions  on 
modern  agricultural  methods.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  many  years  must 
pass  before  it  can  be  surpassed  in  comprehensiveness,  accuracy,  prac- 
tical value,  and  mechanical  excellence.  It  ought  to  be  in  every  library 
in  the  country."  —  Record-Herald,  Chicago. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticulture 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 

With  over  2800  original  engravings;  four  volumes;  the 
set,  $20.00  net;  half  morocco,  $32.00  net;  carriage  extra 

"This  really  monumental  performance  will  take  rank  as  a  standard  in 
its  class.  Illustrations  and  text  are  admirable.  .  .  .  Our  own  convic- 
tion is  that  while  the  future  may  bring  forth  amplified  editions  of  the 
work,  it  will  probably  never  be  superseded.  Recognizing  its  impor- 
tance, the  publishers  have  given  it  faultless  form.  The  typography  leaves 
nothing  to  be  desired,  the  paper  is  calculated  to  stand  wear  and  tear, 
and  the  work  is  at  once  handsomely  and  attractively  bound." — Net* 
York  Daily  Tribune. 

PUBLISHED    BY 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

64-66  Fifth  Avenue.  New  York 


BOOKS   ON    AGRICULTURE 


ON    SELECTION   OF   LAND,   Etc. 

Thomas  F.  Hunt's  How  to  Choose  a  Farm       .         .         . 

E.  \V.  litigant's  Soils:    Their  Formation  and  Relations 
to  Qimate  and  Plant  Growth 

Isaac  P.  Roberts's  The  Farmstead 

ON   TILLAGE,    Etc. 

F.  H.  King's  The  Soil 

Isaac  P.  Roberts's  The  Fertility  of  the  Land    . 

Elwood  Mead's  Irrigation  Institutions     .... 

F.  H.  King's  Irrigation  and  Drainage      .... 
William  E.  Smythe's  The  Conquest  of  Arid  America 
Edward  B.  Voorhees's  Fertilizers     ..... 
Edward  B.  Voorhees's  Forage  Crops         .... 
II.  Snyder's  Chemistry  of  Plant  and  Animal  Life     . 

H.  Snyder's  Soil  and  Fertilizers.     Third  edition 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Principles  of  Agriculture  .... 

W.  C.  Welborn's  Elements  of  Agriculture,  Southern  and 

Western 

J.  F.  Duggar's  Agriculture  for  Southern  Schools 

G.  F.  Warren's  Elements  of  Agriculture  .... 
T.  L.  Lyon  and  E.  O.  Fippin's  The  Principles  of  Soil 

Management         ........ 

Hilgard  &  Osterhout's  Agriculture  for  Schools  on  the 

Pacific  Slope         ........ 

J.  A.  Widtsoe's  Dry  Farming 

ON   GARDEN-MAKING 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Manual  of  Gardening 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Vegetable-Gardening 

L.  II.  Bailey's  Horticulturist's  Rule  Book 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Forcing  Book    .... 

A.  French's  How  to  Grow  Vegetables     .        . 

ON   FRUIT-GROWING,    Etc. 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Nursery  Book 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Fruit-Growing 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  Pruning  Book 

F.  W.  Card's  Bush  Fruits 

J.  T.  Bealby's  Fruit  Ranching  in  British  Columbia 

ON   THE   CARE   OF   LIVE   STOCK 

D.  E.  Lyon's  How  to  Keep  Bees  for  Profit      .         . 
Nelson  S.  Mayo's  The  Diseases  of  Animals 
W.  H.  Jordan's  The  Feeding  of  Animals 

I.  P.  Roberts's  The  Horse 

George  C.  Watson's  Farm  Poultry   ..... 
C.  S.  Valentine's  How  to  Keep  Hens  for  Profit 
O.  Kellner's  The  Scientific  Feeding  of  Animals  (trans.) 
M.  H.  Reynolds's  Veterinary  Studies  for  Agricultural  Stu- 
dents     


$i  75  net 

400  net 
I  50  net 


I  50  net 
I  50  net 
I  25  net 
I  50  net 
I  50  net 
I  25  net 
I  50  net 
I  25  net 
I  25  net 
I  25  net 

75  net 

75  net 

I  10  net 

I  75  net 

i  oo  net 
I  50  net 


200  net 
I  50  net 
75  net 
I  25  net 
I  75  net 


I  50  net 
I  50  net 
I  50  net 
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I  50  net 
I  50  net 
I  50  net 
I  25  net 
I  25  net 
I  50  net 
I  90  net 

I  75  net 


BOOKS    ON    AGRICULTURE  —  Continued 

ON    DAIRY   WORK 

Henry  H.  Wing's  Milk  and  its  Products          .         .  $1  50  net 

C.  M.  Aikman's  Milk I  25  net 

Harry  Snyder's  Dairy  Chemistry I  oo  net 

W.  D.  Frost's  Laboratory  Guide  in  Elementary  Bacteri- 
ology      I  60  net 

I.  P.  Sheldon's  The  Farm  and  the  Dairy          .         .         .  i  oo  net 
Chr.  Barthel's  Methods  Used  in  the  Examination  of  Milk 

and  Dairy  Products I  90  net 

ON   PLANT   DISEASES,  Etc. 

George  Massee's  Diseases  of  Cultivated  Plants  and  Trees  2  25  net 

J.  G.  Lipman's  Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Country  Life        .  i  50  net 

E.  C.  Lodeman's  The  Spraying  of  Plants          .         .         .  i  25  net 

H.  M.  Ward's  Disease  in  Plants  (English)       .         .         .  i  60  net 

A.  S.  Packard's  A  Text-book  on  Entomology  .         .         .  4  50  net 

ON   PRODUCTION   OF    NEW   PLANTS 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Plant-Breeding I  25  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  Survival  of  the  Unlike        .         .         .  2  oo  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  Evolution  of  Our  Native  Fruits  .  2  oo  net 

W.  S.  Harwood's  New  Creations  in  Plant  Life         .         .  i  75  net 

ON   ECONOMICS   AND   ORGANIZATION 

J.  B.  Green's  Law  for  the  American  Farmer     ...  50  net 

J.  McLennan's  Manual  of  Practical  Farming   ...  50  net 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  State  and  the  Farmer          ...  25  net 

Henry  C.  Taylor's  Agricultural  Economics       ...  25  net 

I.  P.  Roberts's  The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook     .         .  25  net 

George  T.  Fairchild's  Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare     .     -    .  25  net 

S.  E.  Sparling's  Business  Organization     .         .         .         .  i  25  net 

In  the  Citizen's  Library.     Includes  a  chapter  on  Farm- 
ing 

Kate  V.  St.  Maur's  A  Self-supporting  Home    .         .         .  I  75  net 

Kate  V.  St.  Maur's  The  Earth's  Bounty  .         .         .         .  I  75  net 
G.  F.  W'arren  and  K.  C.  Livermore's  Exercises  in  Farm 

Management 80  net 

H.  N.  Ogden's  Rural  Hygiene I  50  net 

ON   EVERYTHING   AGRICULTURAL 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture : 
Vol.  I.    Farms,  Climates,  and  Soils. 
Vol.  II.    Farm  Crops. 
Vol.  III.    Farm  Animals. 
Vol.  IV.   The  Farm  and  the  Community. 

Complete  in  four  royal  8vo  volumes,  with  over  2000  illustrations. 
Price  of  sets:   cloth,  $20  net;    half  morocco,  $32  net. 

For  further  information  as  to  any  of  the  above,  address  the  publishers. 


THE   MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

Publishers  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  New  York 


ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE 


By  G.  F.  WARREN 

Professor  of  Farm  Management  and  Farm  Crops,  New  York  State  College  of 
Agriculture,  at  Cornell  University 

Cloth,  izmo.        434  pages.        $1.10  net 


Upon  the  appearance  of  this  volume,  Mr.  W.  J.  Spillman  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C., 
wrote  as  follows : 


"  I  wish  to  congratulate  you  upon  this  book.  It  is  a  type  of  book 
which  has  been  much  needed.  We  have  had  a  large  number  of 
good  books  recently  that  were  not  up  to  high  school  grade.  Dr. 
Warren's  book  will  evidently  make  an  excellent  text  for  high  school 
work  in  agriculture.  It  is  comprehensive  and  at  the  same  time  in- 
tensive, considering  the  scope  which  it  must  necessarily  cover.  The 
subjects  are  well  chosen  and  are  excellently  treated.  I  predict  great 
usefulness  for  this  book." 


This  prediction  has  been  confirmed  not  only  by  the  words  of 
hundreds  of  teachers  who  have  used  the  book  and  found  it  emi- 
nently satisfactory,  but  by  the  fact  that  it  is  now  used  in  more 
than  one  thousand  schools  and  the  number  is  rapidly  increasing. 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  LOS  ANGELES 

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This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


»<.nn    I.     • 

UCMM) 


Call  - 

A  laboratory 
manual  of  ag- 
riculture for 
secondary 
schools. 


S495 
C13  1 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


A    001  107  464    8 


